Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075, Vol. 73: e57668, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado May. 15, 2025)

Diversity and cultural value of the mastofauna associated

with coffee plantations in Oaxaca, Mexico

Karina Madrid-Espinosa1, https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6532-8662

Remigio A. Guzmán-Plazola1*, http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4896-3642

Carlos García Estrada2, http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4965-9426

Dulce María Ávila-Nájera3, https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8535-1528

José Luis Pimentel Equihua1, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8116-1978

1. Colegio de Postgraduados, Carretera México-Texcoco Km. 36.5, Montecillo, Texcoco, Estado de México, México;

karinamadrid3@gmail.com, rguzmanp@colpos.mx (*Correspondence), jequihua@colpos.mx

2. Instituto de Ecología, Universidad del Mar, campus Puerto Escondido, Oaxaca, México; cgarcia@zicatela.umar.mx

3. Departamento de Investigación y Posgrado, Universidad Intercultural del Estado de México, Lib. Francisco Villa S/N,

San Felipe del Progreso 50640, Estado de México, México; dul.avna@gmail.com

Received 19-I-2024. Corrected 13-I-2025. Accepted 08-IX-2025.

ABSTRACT

Introduction: The expansion of conventional agriculture has caused the loss of natural habitats for the fauna, but

the coffee agroecosystems of Oaxaca can provide an alternative habitat for mammals, which is associated with the

cultural value that human communities assign to them.

Objective: To assess the diversity and cultural value of medium and large mammals associated with the coffee

plantation, and what they represent for the inhabitants of San Gabriel Mixtepec, Oaxaca, Mexico.

Method: A mixed method was used. For the diversity analysis, the mammal species were identified through

camera traps. To determine the Cultural Importance Index (IIC), semi-structured interviews and participatory

workshops were carried out with the residents, who also helped to identify the different uses of the medium and

large mammals.

Results: A total of 26 species grouped into seven orders, 14 families, and 23 genera were recorded. Alpha diversity

was greater in the dry season than in the wet season. Some species were detected in only one of the two seasons.

Six hundred and thirty-nine records of cultural uses of mammals were obtained; use as food was the most men-

tioned. Twelve types of uses were identified. The species with the greatest cultural importance were Odocoileus

virginianus (IIC = 0.92), with 11 uses, followed by Dasypus novemcinctus (IIC = 0.61), with 10 uses, Conepatus

leuconotus (IIC = 0.60), with eight uses and Didelphis virginiana (IIC = 0.52), with 11 uses.

Conclusion: The results show the importance that human residents assign to mammals associated with coffee

agroecosystems, both for their use for subsistence and to complement the family economy. Furthermore, the

residents themselves emphasize the importance of their traditional knowledge and the need to adopt sustainable

management practices for the mastofauna, because they recognize the importance it has in the community and

the benefits it can have on the environment.

Key words: mammals; Cultural Importance Index (IIC); coffee; agroecology; biocultural.

https://doi.org/10.15517/rev.biol.trop..v73i1.57668

VERTEBRATE BIOLOGY

2Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075 Vol. 73: e57668, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado May. 15, 2025)

INTRODUCCIÓN

Mexico has a large diversity of mammals.

There are more than 500 identified species;

many of them are in danger of extinction due

to habitat loss and ecological fragmentation

(Hernández-Betancourt et al., 2010; Sánchez-

Cordero et al., 2014). According to their body

size, they are classified as small (less than 100

g), medium (101 g to 10 kg), and large (greater

than 10 kg) (Ceballos et al., 2005). Oaxaca is

the state in Mexico with the largest diversity of

terrestrial mammals, with 216 species, of which

155 are small, 50 are medium, and 11 are large

(Briones-Salas et al., 2015).

Medium and large mammals are impor-

tant as seed dispersers, pollinators, predators,

and prey (Bolaños & Naranjo, 2001; Lavariega

et al., 2012). They influence the composition

and structure of plant and animal communities

(Bell et al., 2021). These changes can result in

the modification of habitats and affect the avail-

ability of resources and biological diversity (Bell

et al., 2021; Cortés-Marcial & Briones-Salas,

2014). It has been suggested that medium and

large mammals have different degrees of sensi-

tivity to ecological disturbance, depending on

their requirements of space, food, and behavior

(Torres et al., 2003). Despite their ecological

importance, medium and large mammals are

being threatened by the pressure from various

anthropogenic activities such as agriculture;

then, knowledge of habitat characteristics that

determine their distribution and abundance is

crucial for the management and conservation

of biodiversity (Lavariega et al., 2012; Mezhua-

Velázquez et al., 2022).

Given the loss and fragmentation of the

habitat, the restricted knowledge about medi-

um and large mammals (Altamirano-Álvarez

et al., 2009; Álvarez-Cárdenas et al., 2009;

Ríos-Solís et al. 2021), and the change in the

conventional agricultural model, it has been

suggested that one of the agricultural models

designed to be sustainable is the agroecosystem

(Landa-Ochoa et al., 2024). It is defined as an

RESUMEN

Diversidad y valor cultural de la mastofauna asociada a plantaciones de café en Oaxaca, México

Introducción: La expansión de la agricultura convencional ha provocado la pérdida de hábitats naturales para la

fauna, pero los agroecosistemas cafetaleros de Oaxaca pueden proporcionar un hábitat alternativo para la masto-

fauna, lo cual está asociado con el valor cultural que las comunidades humanas les asignan.

Objetivo: Conocer la diversidad y el valor cultural de los mamíferos medianos y grandes asociados al cafetal, y lo

que representan para los habitantes de San Gabriel Mixtepec, Oaxaca, México.

Método: Se utilizó un método mixto. Para el análisis de diversidad se identificaron las especies de mamíferos a

través de cámaras trampa, y para determinar el Índice de Importancia Cultural (IIC), se realizaron entrevistas

semiestructuradas y talleres participativos con los pobladores, quienes también ayudaron a identificar los dife-

rentes usos de los mamíferos medianos y grandes.

Resultados: Se registraron 26 especies agrupadas en siete órdenes, 14 familias y 23 géneros. La diversidad alfa fue

mayor en la época seca que en la húmeda. Algunas especies se detectaron en solo una de las dos temporadas. Se

obtuvieron 639 registros de usos culturales de los mamíferos; el uso como alimento fue el más mencionado. Se

identificaron 12 tipos de usos. Las especies con mayor importancia cultural fueron: Odocoileus virginianus (IIC =

0.92), con 11 usos, seguido de Dasypus novemcinctus (IIC = 0.61), con 10 usos, Conepatus leuconotus (IIC = 0.60),

con ocho usos y Didelphis virginiana (IIC = 0.52), con 11 usos.

Conclusión: Los resultados muestran la importancia que los pobladores asignan a los mamíferos asociados a los

agroecosistemas cafetaleros, tanto por su uso para subsistencia como para complementar la economía familiar.

Además, los propios pobladores enfatizan la importancia de su conocimiento tradicional y la necesidad de adop-

tar prácticas de manejo sostenible de la mastofauna, porque reconocen la importancia que tiene en la comunidad

y los beneficios que puede tener en el ambiente.

Palabras clave: mamíferos; Índice de Importancia Cultural (IIC); café; agroecología; biocultural.

Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075, Vol. 73: e57668, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado May. 15, 2025)

ecosystem deliberately modified by humans to

obtain goods and services, mainly for economic

purposes (Paleologos et al., 2017). This concept

implies that dynamic relationships are estab-

lished between human populations and their

physical-biological environment, which high-

lights the interaction between the biotic and

abiotic elements that compose it. In addition,

the importance of understanding how these

modifications affect both agricultural produc-

tion and the sustainability of the ecosystem as

a whole is emphasized (Blanco & Leyva, 2007;

Landa-Ochoa et al., 2024; Machado & Campos,

2008; Sans, 2007).

Various agroecosystems form a smooth

transition between natural ecosystems and

disturbed areas (López-Barrera & Landgrave,

2008). Their management designs are based

on an approach linked to the environment that

is more socially sensitive and focused not only

on production but also on ecological stability

(Paleologos et al., 2017). In these cases, biodi-

versity plays an important role in its mainte-

nance by providing ecosystem services, defined

as the benefits people obtain from ecosystems

since they are essential for human well-being

(Avendaño-Leadem et al., 2020). These systems

contribute to nutrient recycling, to the control

of local microclimate, and to the regulation of

hydrological processes, among others (López-

Barrera & Landgrave, 2008). For example, the

shaded coffee agroecosystems associated with

rainforests have a wide variety of native trees

that have contributed to mitigating the loss of

these services (Ruelas-Monjardín et al., 2014).

For these reasons, they are important at a

national and international level, since in many

cases they have replaced ecosystems and have

been capable of maintaining part of the original

biodiversity (García-Burgos et al., 2014).

Coffee-producing countries are in regions

that are considered biodiversity hotspots, which

are regions of the world that host an exceptional

number of endemic species and ecosystems;

however, they are experiencing significant habi-

tat loss, making them particularly vulnerable

to extinction (Lessler et al., 2017; Perfecto et

al., 2019). In the context of coffee-producing

countries, many of these regions are in tropical

and subtropical areas, where coffee production

has led to drastic changes in land use (Coltri et

al., 2019; Navidad-Murriera et al., 2023). How-

ever, coffee production faces significant chal-

lenges, as intensive agricultural practices can

lead to deforestation and habitat loss, putting

local biodiversity at risk (Escobar-Ibáñez et al.,

2023; Sinu et al., 2021). Therefore, it is essential

to promote sustainable cultivation techniques

that integrate biodiversity conservation with

agricultural production, thus ensuring the eco-

nomic and ecological viability of these regions

(Perfecto et al., 2019; Otero-Jiménez et al.,

2020). Shade coffee agroecosystems in rain-

forests have contributed to mitigating the loss

of ecosystem services and can also be of great

importance as habitat, refuge area, food for var-

ious groups of animals, and the conservation of

biodiversity, because they have a tree canopy

that is usually more complex and diverse, with

different heights and strata, which provides

denser and more heterogeneous shade (Calde-

rón-Patrón, 2016; García-Luis et al., 2013).

Oaxaca is one of the main coffee-produc-

ing areas; it ranks fourth nationally, with 135

000 ha cultivated in marginalized indigenous

regions (García-Domínguez et al., 2021). Cof-

fee represents an important economy for its

inhabitants (among whom a high indigenous

presence stands out). Coffee plantations are

grown in seven of the eight regions of the state

that make up the territory, where 17 coffee-pro-

ducing municipalities are located (Girón-Iles-

cas, 2023). However, according to the literature,

San Gabriel Mixtepec, is not registered among

the coffee-producing municipalities despite

receiving support from the government Pro-

grama para el Bienestar 2023, in coffee produc-

tion (Secretaría de Agricultura y Desarrollo

Rural, 2023). Approximately 100 000 families

are dedicated to growing coffee. This represents

almost half a million Oaxacans out of the 4

132 148 total state population (Figueroa et al.,

2020). In addition, coffee plantations represent

important corridors between the jungles of the

lowlands and the coniferous and oak forests of

4Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075 Vol. 73: e57668, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado May. 15, 2025)

the highlands of the Northern and Southern

Sierras of the state (Anta, 2006).

The mammals associated with coffee plan-

tations have great cultural importance, since

these species are not only part of the state’s

biodiversity, but are also deeply integrated into

the traditions, beliefs, and practices of local

communities. Species such as the white-tailed

deer and the coyote, are valued not only for

their ecological role but also for their relevance

in the mythology and popular culture of the

region. For example, the coyote is seen as a

symbol of cunning and adaptability, while the

deer is considered a sacred animal in many

indigenous communities (Corona-Mendoza &

Escalante, 2021; García-Grajales et al., 2022).

However, studies on terrestrial mammals in the

state of Oaxaca have focused on the analysis

of their distribution, mammalian lists, and

expansion of distribution areas (Briones-Salas,

2012; Cervantes & Yépez, 1995; López et al.,

2009; Santos-Moreno & Ruiz-Velásquez, 2011).

Some authors have reported exclusively on

medium and large mammals (Cruz-Espinoza

et al., 2012; Cruz-Jácome et al., 2015; Lira-

Torres & Briones-Salas, 2012). In the case of

the study area, works carried out near San

Gabriel Mixtepec have also focused on mam-

mals of all sizes (Briones-Salas et al., 2016;

Buenrostro-Silva et al., 2012; Buenrostro-Silva

et al., 2015; Lira-Torres et al., 2005; Lira-Torres,

2006; Lira-Torres et al., 2008), while works on

medium and large mammals have been recent

(Hernández-Hernández, 2002; Juárez-Velasco,

2016; Sigüenza-Pérez, 2014). Works focused on

the mastofauna associated with coffee agroeco-

systems are not too many (Palacios-Romo et al.,

2012; Pinacho López, 2014) and studies focused

on the cultural value of mammals associated

with the coffee plantation in Oaxaca are rela-

tively recent (Lavariega et al., 2012; Palacios-

Romo et al., 2012; Ruiz-Velásquez, 2019).

From this perspective, and considering that

shaded coffee agroecosystems preserve a com-

position, structure, and diversity that resembles

the original ecosystems, these agroecosystems

function as habitats for medium and large-sized

mammals. These are essential to maintain the

balance of the ecosystem and are appreciated

by local communities due to their various uses.

Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate whether

shade-grown coffee agroecosystems support a

high diversity of medium and large mammals

and to analyze the cultural value they have for

the inhabitants of San Gabriel Mixtepec, in

Southern Oaxaca.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study area: The municipality of San Gabri-

el Mixtepec has an altitude that varies from

550 to 1 360 meters above sea level. It is lim-

ited to the North by the municipalities of San

Juan Lachao and San Jerónimo Coatlán; to

the South by San Pedro Mixtepec and Santa

María Colotepec; to the East by San Sebastián

Coatlán and the West by Santos Reyes Nopala

(Díaz-Olivera, 2013). It is located between the

coordinates 15°50’ to 15°13’ N & 96°10’ to

97°15’ W (Fig. 1). The predominant climate

is warm sub-humid with rains in summer and

with an average relative humidity of 77.6 %;

it has an average annual temperature range of

20 to 28 °C and mean annual precipitation of

1 000 to 2 500 mm (Cruz, 2013; Pinacho-López,

2014). The municipality has a vegetation of

Oak Forest, Pine-Oak Forest, Mountain Cloud

Forest with Secondary Vegetation and Rainfed

Agriculture, Induced Grassland, and Medium

Sub-evergreen Forest with Secondary Vegeta-

tion (Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geo-

grafía [INEGI], 2021).

Methodology: The work was carried out

from August 2022 to April 2023, in three

stages: 1) The first was to determine diversity

and evaluate differences in species composition

between two times of the year (dry and wet sea-

son). A sampling of medium and large mam-

mals associated with the coffee agroecosystem

located in the Jamaica farm was carried out; this

is an area characterized by a shade coffee plan-

tation associated with a medium sub-deciduous

forest in the extension of approximately 500

hectares; 2) In the second stage, the cultural

value of medium and large mammals associated

Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075, Vol. 73: e57668, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado May. 15, 2025)

with coffee plantations given to them by the

residents of San Gabriel Mixtepec was inves-

tigated through semi-structured interviews in

which questions were asked such as personal

data, perceptions of changes in vegetation and

fauna of the community, different uses of mam-

mals, among other questions; and 3) In the

third stage, three participatory workshops were

held for coffee growers and high school stu-

dents to learn their perspective on medium and

large mammals and the uses that they are given.

Sampling of medium and large mam-

mals: Sampling was carried out with seven

camera traps (Bushnell, model 119467C) for the

detection of medium and large mammal species

in coffee agroecosystems of the Finca Jamaica,

that belongs to Mr. Guillermo Rojas Saldaña;

the farm is located at coordinates 16°07’ to

16°08’ N & 97°65’ to 97°03’ W (Fig. 2). To

cover the dry and wet seasons of the year, this

work was carried out from August 2022 to April

2023. A linear transect was used; first, the study

site was georeferenced, and the points for plac-

ing the camera traps were also georeferenced.

For this, the location of the permanent stream,

located in the middle part of the farm polygon,

was taken as a linear reference. Seven digital

wildlife cameras were used, with 8-megapixel

images configured for three photographs per

event, and one minute between each event,

programmed with the highest sensitivity. In this

case, no attractants were used to avoid bias in

the results and minimize habitat disturbance.

The photo traps were placed among the veg-

etation, taking the previously georeferenced

points as a reference; they were attached to the

trunk of a tree at an average height of 50 cm.

The sampling sites had distances from each

other of 350 to 550 linear meters according

to the topographic condition of the area. The

cameras remained active 24 hours a day for 188

days of sampling. They were reviewed approxi-

mately every 15 days, to verify their correct

operation and to extract the captured images.

Fig. 1. Location map of the municipality of San Gabriel Mixtepec. Prepared by the authors with data from INEGI and

field data.

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Subsequently, data on dates, times, and sam-

pling sites were taken for species identification.

Species diversity: The sample was analyzed

by constructing a species accumulation curve,

according to the Mao Tao estimator (Collwell,

et al., 2004; Moreno & Halffter, 2000); sampling

was randomized 100 times, and the accumula-

tion curve was compared with that obtained

with the Clench model (Moreno, 2001). Sub-

sequently, species richness was calculated with

the first-order non-parametric estimators Chao

2 and Jacknife, based on incidence (Guido-

Lemus, 2015). Alpha diversity was calculated

using the Shannon-Wienner index (H’). To

avoid underestimation, the Pielou equity was

calculated (J’; Moreno, 2001). To determine the

difference between species diversity in the dry

and wet seasons of the year, Hutchenson t test

was used (Zar, 2010). Species turnover between

the dry and wet seasons was calculated using the

Whitaker index (Moreno, 2001). The similarity

of medium and large mammal species numbers

between the dry and wet seasons of the year was

calculated with the qualitative similarity indices

of Jaccard and Sørensen (Moreno, 2001). Past

(Hammer et al., 2001), R Core Team (v. 4.3.1,

2022), and Species Diversity & Richness III (v.

3.0.2) software were used.

Cultural value: The Cultural Importance

Index (IIC; Ávila-Nájera et al., 2011) is used

to assess and measure the value of different

cultural elements within a society. This index

can include topics such as traditions, customs,

tangible and intangible heritage, and the cul-

tural diversity of a community. The index aims

to provide a framework for understanding how

these elements contribute to the social and

economic development of a region. In these

cases, semi-structured interviews were car-

ried out with the staff of the Jamaica farm and

residents of the municipality of San Gabriel

Mixtepec. Formula:

Cultural Importance Index (IICz) =

Σ (Iuz + Fmz + Vutz) / 300

Where: Luz = usage intensity, Fmz = frequency

of mentions, Vuz = usage value.

Fig. 2. Map with the location of the sampling sites (red diamonds).

Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075, Vol. 73: e57668, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado May. 15, 2025)

A description of each of these sub-indexes

is given by Ávila-Nájera et al. (2011).

To obtain the sample size, a simple random

sampling without replacement was applied,

based on Thompson’s formula (1992), to the

population size estimated from the 2020 Popu-

lation and Housing Census (INEGI, 2021), with

a confidence level of 95 %. and a margin of

error of 6 %. Formula:

Where: n = sample size, N = Population size, p

= expected proportion (5 % = 0.05), q = 1-p, Z

= confidence value (1.96 at 95 % confidence), d

= tolerable error margin (6 % = 0.06).

Participatory workshops: Three partici-

patory workshops were held. One was carried

out with coffee growers from San Gabriel Mix-

tepec. In this, the presentation of the catalog of

potential species, for their visual identification,

was used. Two other workshops were applied to

young people at the high school level. In these,

the dynamic consisted of exposing the catalog

to one of the groups but not to the other; this

was done to evaluate the knowledge, interest,

and perspective that young people have. With

the information provided in the participatory

workshops, their knowledge, and perspective

on medium and large mammals associated with

coffee plantations were determined; also, the

uses that the participants mentioned for each

species they identified and recognized through

the illustrative catalog were listed.

RESULTS

Nine hundred and eighteen records of

medium and large mammals belonging to 26

species, grouped into seven orders, 14 families,

and 23 genera were obtained using the three

methods. Of the 26 species recorded, 10 were

detected from samplings with the camera traps

on the Finca Jamaica farm, 25 were from the

semi-structured interviews and 24 were men-

tioned in the participatory workshops (Table 1).

Sampling of medium and large mam-

mals: Two hundred and seventy-six effective

records (independent records) of medium and

large mammals were obtained, with 188 days

Table 1

List of species by taxa according to the proposal of Ramírez-Pulido et al., (2014), common name and number of medium and

large mammals recorded by sampling on the Jamaica farm (F), Workshops (T), and Interviews (E).

# Species TAXA Common name Registration method

ORDER DIDELPHIMORPHIA 

FAMILY DIDELPHIDAE   

SUBFAMILY DIDELPHINAE    

1Didelphis marsupialis Linnaeus, 1758 Opossum/Opossum F T

2Didelphis virginiana Kerr, 1792 Tlacuache F T E

CINGULATE ORDER 

FAMILY DASYPODIDAE   

SUBFAMILY DASYPODINAE    

3Dasypus novemcinctus Linnaeus, 1758 Armadillo F T E

PILOUS ORDER 

FAMILY MYRMECOPHAGIDAE    

4Tamandua mexicana (Saussure, 1860) Honeysucker/ Miereneters F T E

FAMILY CYCLOPEDIDAE    

5Cyclopes didactylus (Linnaeus, 1758) Marto T E

ORDER LAGOMORPHA 

FAMILY LEPORIDAE    

8Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075 Vol. 73: e57668, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado May. 15, 2025)

of sampling effort from the camera traps. The

records belong to 10 species grouped into six

orders, six families, and nine genera. The spe-

cies accumulation curve obtained during the

188 field samplings was fitted to the Clench

model with parameters a = 0.260, b = 0.022,

and rho = 0.941. In this model, the “a” value

(0.260) indicates that, by increasing the sam-

pling effort, approximately 26 % of possible

species in the area are expected to be identified,

# Species TAXA Common name Registration method

SUBFAMILY LEPORINAE 

6Lepus flavigularis J. A. Wagner, 1844 Hare/Mountain rabbit  T E

7Sylvilagus cunicularius (Waterhouse, 1848) Rabbit T E

RODENTIAN ORDER 

8sspp Gopher T E

FAMILY SCIURIDAE    

SUBFAMILY SCIURINAE    

9Sciurus aureogaster F. Cuvier, 1829 Squirrel F T E

10 Sciurus deppei Peters, 1863 Daughter/Squirrel T E

FAMILY ERETHIZONTIDAE  

11 Coendou mexicanus Kerr, 1792 Porcupine  T E

CARNIVORA ORDER 

FAMILY FELIDAE 

SUBFAMILY FELINAE    

12 Leopardus pardalis (Linnaeus, 1758) Ocelot F T E

13 Leopardus wiedii (Schinz, 1821) Margay T E

14 Puma concolor (Linnaeus, 1771) Cougar F T E

15 Herpailurus yagouaroundi (Lacépède, 1809) Panther/Ounce T E

SUBFAMILY PANTHERINAE   

16 Panthera onca (Linnaeus, 1758) Jaguar/Panther T 

CANIDAE FAMILY   

17 Canis latrans Say, 1823 Coyote  T E

18 Urocyon cinereoargenteus (Schreber, 1775) Costoche/Slut T E

FAMILY MUSTELIDAE    

SUBFAMILY MUSTELINAE  

19 Eira barbara (Linnaeus, 1758) Water dog T E

20 Mustela frenata Lichtenstein, 1831 Xiquimilla/Jiquimilla/Weasel T E

FAMILY MEPHITIDAE    

21 Conepatus leuconotus (Lichtenstein, 1832) Skunk T E

FAMILY PROCYONIDAE    

SUBFAMILY PROCYONINAE    

22 Bassariscus astutus (Lichtenstein, 1830) Cacomixtle E

23 Nasua narica (Linnaeus, 1766) Badger F T E

24 Procyon lotor (Linnaeus, 1758) Raccoon T E

ARTIODACTYLA ORDER 

FAMILY TAYASSUIDAE  

25 Dicotyles tajacu (Linnaeus, 1758) Wild boar/Javelin F T E

FAMILY CERVIDAE    

SUBFAMILY ODOCOILEINAE    

26 Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780) Deer F T E

Total species by record type 10 24 25

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suggesting that there are still many species to

be discovered, but sampling is approaching its

limit. The “b” value (0.022) indicates that, even

if sampling continues, the probability of find-

ing new species is low. The rho value (0.941)

indicates good model fitting. This means that

the accumulating species curve is a good rep-

resentation of mammal diversity in the study

area. Such a high value supports the idea that

the results on species diversity are reliable, and

this can be concluded since the accumulation

curve did not reach an asymptote. The model

predicted 12 species (Fig. 3). The number of

species recorded is lower than that obtained

with the non-parametric estimators (Chao 2 =

11.48; Jacknife 1 = 12.96). In this case, a Chao

value of 2 suggests an average of 11 species of

medium and large mammals associated with

coffee plantations. A Jacknife value of 1 sug-

gests that 3 species are estimated. Although a

single record may not adequately reflect species

diversity, the Chao 2 and Jackknife 1 estimators

are designed to compensate precisely for this

limitation. These estimators use information

from existing records, including singletons,

to make projections about the total species

richness in the area; therefore, although the

degree of sample coverage is important and can

influence the interpretation of the results, the

non-parametric estimators already consider the

possibility that there are unrecorded species.

Thus, the estimation of 11 to 13 species remains

valid and relevant, regardless of the number

of individual records. The alpha diversity of

medium and large mammal species was greater

in the dry season (H’ = 1.6851, J’ = 0.734) than

in the wet season (H’ = 1.3407, J’ = 0.961), but

the differences were not significant (t = 1.8482,

d.f. = 81.426, p = 0.068). The species turnover

between the dry and wet seasons of the year

Fig. 3. Accumulation curve of medium and large mammal species, according to the Mao Tao estimator and its confidence

intervals, and the Clench model at Jamaica Farm, San Gabriel Mixtepec.

10 Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075 Vol. 73: e57668, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado May. 15, 2025)

was low (βw = 0.333), while the similarity was

intermediate (IJ = 0.5; IS = 0.666) (Table 2).

Cultural value: A total of 68 semi-struc-

tured interviews were carried out with the

owners and workers of Finca Jamaica (n = 7)

and the residents of San Gabriel Mixtepec (n

= 61), from which 639 records of 24 species

were obtained, grouped into seven orders, in

14 families and 21 genera. Twelve uses given

to medium and large mammals were recorded:

food, pet, medicinal, ornamental, artisanal,

hunting, myths and legends, ritual, beneficial,

harmful, sale, and perfumery (Table 3). The

deer is the species with the highest Cultural

Importance Index (IIC = 0.92), followed by the

armadillo (IIC = 0.61), the skunk (IIC = 0.60),

and the opossum (IIC = 0.52). These indices

reflect the relevance that those species have in

the local community, both in terms of use and

cultural significance. Their high score in the

IIC indicates that they are species valued and

recognized for their contribution to the local

culture and economy, as well as for their impor-

tance in the ecosystems where they live. This is

confirmed by the high number of uses report-

ed. The species with the highest number of uses

are the opossum and the deer with 11 uses out

of 12 reported, followed by the armadillo, with

10 uses, the rabbit with nine, and the squirrel,

the skunk, and the wild boar, with eight uses.

Participatory workshops: Fifty-eight cof-

fee growers and two groups of 22 students

each, of high school level, participated in the

participatory workshops. One hundred and

seventy-eight mentions of uses were obtained

for 24 species grouped into seven orders, 16

families, and 22 genera. The use of food was

the most mentioned in the three workshops.

Eight uses were mentioned: food, pet, medici-

nal, ornamental, artisanal, myths and legends,

beneficial and harmful, with food use being

the most mentioned, followed by harmful

and ornamental.

DISCUSSION

Ten medium and large mammal species

were recorded from the coffee farm studied.

This finding is significant. It suggests that

coffee plantations may provide habitats for a

large number of species. However, the species

accumulation curve did not reach an asymp-

tote. This indicates that the sampling effort

undertaken in this work might have not been

sufficient to capture all diversity present in the

ecosystem. This phenomenon is common in

biodiversity studies, where habitat complex-

ity and species behavior can make it difficult

to obtain a complete inventory. The medium

and large mammals recorded by this method

Table 2

Species of medium and large mammals for the wet and dry season of the year, at Finca Jamaica, San Gabriel Mixtepec.

Species Common name Epoch Total records

Wet Dry

Dasypus novemcinctus Armadillo 8 30 38

Dicotyles tajacu Wild boar/boar 2 8 10

Didelphis marsupialis Opossum 1 1

Didelphis virginiana Tlacuache 10 12 22

Leopardus pardalis Ocelot 1 1 2

Nasua narica Badger 4 4

Odocoileus virginianus Deer 2 1 3

Puma concolor Cougar 1 1

Sciurus aureogaster Squirrel 10 10

Tamandua mexicana Honeysucker/Aardvark 1 1

Total records 35 57 92

Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075, Vol. 73: e57668, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado May. 15, 2025)

were more numerous than what was reported

by Pinacho-López (2014), who found seven

species of medium and large mammals of the

30 reported in his list in San Gabriel Mixtepec.

Considering the information obtained from

the people of the Finca Jamaica farm and

the non-parametric estimator Jacknife 1, it

can be inferred that more than three species

were missing to be recorded. The residents

indicated having observed the ounce or pan-

ther (Herpailurus yagouaroundi), the porcupine

(Coendou mexicanus), the costoche or gray

fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), and the skunk

(Conepatus leuconotus); in addition, the pres-

ence of these species has been reported for

the coast of Oaxaca (Briones-Salas et al., 2015;

Buenrostro-Silva et al., 2012; Juárez-Velasco,

2016; Lira-Torres et al., 2005). The ounce or

Table 3

Species of medium and large mammals recorded from interviews in San Gabriel Mixtepec.

Species Common name Total mentions

of the species Applications Types of uses IIC

Didelphis virginiana Opposum 45 11 Al, Ma, Me, Or, Ar, Ca, ML, Ri,

Be, Da, Ve

0.52

Dasypus novemcinctus Armadillo 101 10 Al, Ma, Me, Or, Ar, Ca, ML, Be,

Da, Ve

0.61

Tamandua mexicana Honeysucker/

Miereneters

13 5 Al, Ma, Or, ML, Da 0.11

Cyclopes didactylus Marto 3 3 Al, Or, ML 0.03

Lepus flavigularis Hare/Mountain rabbit 9 3 Al, Ma, Or 0.04

Sylvilagus cunicularius Rabbit 57 9 Al, Ma, Or, Ar, Ca, ML, Be,

Da, Ve

0.39

sspp Gopher 4 1 Da 0.02

Sciurus aureogaster Squirrel 82 8 Al, Ma, Me, Or, Ar, Ca, Be, Da 0.37

Sciurus deppei Daughter/Squirrel 14 4 Al, Ma, Or, Da 0.06

Coendou mexicanus Porcupine 5 4 Al, Ma, Me, Da 0.04

Leopardus pardalis Ocelot 6 5 Ma,Or, Ca, ML, Da 0.07

Leopardus wiedii Margay 16 6 Ma, Or, Ar, Ca, ML, Da 0.16

Puma concolor Cougar 4 4 Al, Ma, Or, ML 0.04

Herpailurus

yagouaroundi

Ounce 3 2 Or, Be 0.03

Canis latrans Coyote 1 1 Or 0.01

Urocyon

cinereoargenteus

Costoche/Slut 15 4 Al, Ma, Ar, Da 0.09

Eira barbara Water dog 2 2 Al, Or 0.01

Mustela frenata Xiquimilla/Jiquimilla/

Weas el

4 2 Al, Da 0.02

Conepatus leuconotus Skunk 31 8 Al, Ma, Me, Or, ML, Be, Da, Pe 0.60

Bassariscus astutus Cacomixtle 2 2 Al, Or 0.01

Nasua narica Badger 51 6 Al, Ma, Or, Ri, Be, Da 0.26

Procyon lotor Raccoon 3 3 Al, Ma, Ar 0.02

Dicotyles tajacu Wild boar/Javelin 50 8 Al, Ma, Or, Ar, Ca, Be, Da, Ve 0.22

Odocoileus virginianus Deer 118 11 Al, Ma, Me, Or, Ar, Ca, ML, Ri,

Be, Da, Ve

0.92

Al = Food, Ma = Pet, Me = Medicinal, Or = Ornamental, Ar = Artisanal, Ca = Hunting, ML = Myths and Legends, Ri = Ritual,

Be = Beneficial, Da = Harmful, Ve = Sale, Pe = Perfumery. IIC = Cultural Importance Index.

12 Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075 Vol. 73: e57668, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado May. 15, 2025)

panther is a species associated with high-eleva-

tion areas such as humid forests or habitats near

water bodies. Unlike other felines, this species

has mainly diurnal habits, although it can also

be active at night, so it is more likely to be seen

during the day than other more nocturnal

felines (cathemeral habits); coupled with the

fact that they are good swimmers and climbers,

and it has been observed that they store food in

trees. Their cathemeral habits allow them to be

more efficient as predators, taking more advan-

tage of their environment, increasing their

chances of survival, and allowing them to avoid

humans and other dangers. They can adjust

their behavior according to hunting pressure or

human activity in their habitat (Ávila-Nájera et

al., 2016; Reid, 2009). The porcupine is an arbo-

real species that spends most of its time in trees.

It is mainly nocturnal and solitary (Marineros-

Sánchez et al., 2018). The costoche or gray fox

is also a nocturnal and solitary species; they can

climb trees and swim (Wong-Smer et al., 2022).

Lastly, the skunk is primarily nocturnal. During

the winter, some skunks can enter a state of tor-

por, although it does not account for complete

hibernation. They build underground burrows

where they rest and take refuge and usually

have an affinity with water bodies (Martínez-

Ku et al., 2008). They sometimes share burrows

dug by other species such as foxes and rac-

coons (Farías-González & Hernández-Mendo-

za, 2021). The difficulty in recording skunks

in tropical areas can be attributed to several

interrelated factors, including their nocturnal

and elusive behavior, which limits opportuni-

ties for direct observation, making their detec-

tion difficult, especially in dense habitats where

their natural camouflage allows them to avoid

human contact, coupled with the complexity

and heterogeneity of tropical ecosystems, which

represent an additional challenge (Astiazarán-

Azacarraga et al, 2020).

According to the species recorded by Buen-

rostro-Silva et al. (2017) in their work carried

out in a Private Reserve of San Gabriel Mixte-

pec, the species that remained to be recorded

are probably the margay (Leopardus wiedii)

and the raccoon (Procyon lotor). It is feasible

that the lack of findings of these species of

medium and large mammals could be because

the ocelot is a difficult species to record due to

its nocturnal-crepuscular and arboreal habits,

despite its wide distribution (Morales-Delgado

et al., 2021; Oliveira-Calleia et al., 2009). The

diversity and distribution of mammal species

can vary depending on the habitat, the avail-

ability of food resources, and the interaction

with other animals and humans. Medium and

large mammals tend to occupy more specific

ecological niches and require extensive home

ranges (Ávila-Nájera et al., 2016), which means

that they may not pass near the camera traps

as frequently as necessary to be recorded; nev-

ertheless, when designing and analyzing the

sampling data, these variables were considered

to obtain more precise results.

The diversity of medium and large mam-

mals was numerically greater in the dry season

than in the wet season, although the differences

were not statistically significant. These con-

siderations suggest that variations in diversity

are not simply the result of chance; they rather

reflect ecological responses and behavioral pat-

terns of species that rely on environmental

conditions. Our results are similar to those of

Juárez-Velasco (2016) for medium and large

mammals associated with low deciduous for-

ests in the same region. These species may

require greater amount of resources, such as

larger prey or larger habitat areas, which may

limit their distribution and abundance as com-

pared to smaller species (Cruz-Jácome et al.,

2015). The similarities in diversity between

both works can also be explained by the occur-

rence of the permanent stream throughout

the year. Water availability is very important

because medium and large mammals can meet

their liquid requirements during the dry sea-

son (Juárez Velasco, 2016; Lira-Torres, 2006),

even though seasonality is well-marked in

this agroecosystem.

Although the turnover of medium and

large mammal species between the dry and

wet seasons was low, species similarity was

intermediate, suggesting a significant number

of species was found in both seasons, although

Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075, Vol. 73: e57668, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado May. 15, 2025)

some species are unique to each season. This

may indicate that certain species are resilient

and can adapt to seasonal variations, while

others may be more specific to a habitat type

or environmental conditions. The presence of

deer and badger could have been due to their

generalist habits; furthermore, the deer is one

of the most adaptable and tolerant species to

different anthropogenic activities, persisting in

agricultural areas and even near urban centers,

as long as there are pockets of habitat that pro-

vide shelter, food, water and cover in quantity

and sufficient quality (Lira-Torres, 2006; Rey-

na-Hurtado & Tanner, 2007). The presence of

tlacuache in both seasons is possibly related to

its omnivorous habits because it consumes sev-

eral food groups (Mesa-Zavala et al., 2012; Pina

et al., 2004). The case of armadillo is possible

since it is considered a common species that

has been reported in disturbed environments

and its movements are short, which allows it

to be recorded (Mendoza-Durán, 2005). The

badger is omnivorous and feeds on a variety

of foods including fruits, insects, small verte-

brates, and carrion (Altamirano-Álvarez et al.,

2013); however, its populations have probably

decreased or have been uprooted from certain

areas due mainly to the loss and fragmenta-

tion of its habitat, illegal hunting, and preda-

tor control campaigns (Espinoza-García et al.,

2014). In the case of the ocelot, it is a widely

distributed carnivore with nocturnal habits,

although it presents some diurnal activity. They

are opportunists related to high consumption

of mammals of less than one kilogram, so

their presence in the coffee agroecosystem can

be ecologically indicative since it is a species

considered key because it not only regulates

the populations of its prey but also determines

the dynamics of the community of Neotropical

mesopredators (Castagnino-Vera, 2017; Nive-

lo-Villavicencio et al., 2019). However, some

medium and large mammals may be more

vulnerable to poaching, habitat loss, and other

human factors, which may affect their presence

and abundance in certain areas.

Mammals are relevant in coffee crops (Bar-

rera-Méndez & Vázquez-López, 2020). They

play various roles in the coffee plantation eco-

system and are valued for their contribution

to biodiversity and natural beauty (Escrib-

ano-Ávila et al., 2015; Herrera-Flores et al.,

2019). The uses given to the medium and large

mammals obtained in this work are similar to

those reported by García et al. (2018), Zavala-

Sánchez et al. (2018), and Herrera-Flores et

al. (2019), with food, pet, and sale being those

most reported by community residents. Inter-

estingly, the deer, armadillo, skunk, ocelot,

rabbit, and squirrel are the species of greatest

cultural importance. These have been an inte-

gral part of Mexican culture for centuries and

play various roles in different aspects of society

(Estrada-Portillo et al., 2018; García-Grajales

et al., 2022). Likewise, the cultural impact of

medium and large mammals associated with

coffee plantations in Mexico is significant. For

example, in some works (Herrera-Flores et al.,

2019; Medina-Gutiérrez & Ramírez-Silva, 2019;

Ojeda-Lavariega et al., 2019) it has been indicat-

ed that the deer is considered a sacred animal in

many indigenous cultures of Mexico. Its meat is

used in traditional festivities and ceremonies,

and its horns and skin are used to make handi-

crafts. Similarly, the rabbit is appreciated for its

meat and is used in Mexican cuisine. In addi-

tion, its skin is used to make handicrafts, such

as hats and bags (Buenrostro-Silva et al., 2017).

The armadillo is used in traditional Mexican

medicine. Parts of its body are believed to have

healing properties and are used to treat various

diseases (Zavala-Sánchez et al., 2018).

The results obtained from the participatory

workshops indicate that the use of mammals

is of great importance for the residents of the

various indigenous or peasant communities

(Ojeda-Lavariega et al., 2019), not only because

they have realized that the populations of these

species are decreasing. With the passage of time

and the exchange of knowledge by the residents

with the researchers and vice versa, both parties

have been sensitized to become aware of the

importance of mammals and the role they play

within ecosystems and agroecosystems, as well

as the importance they have for residents and

14 Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075 Vol. 73: e57668, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado May. 15, 2025)

the relevance of their conservation (Estrada-

Portillo et al., 2018).

The mammals associated with coffee plan-

tations represent an important resource for

the community in their daily life, as a self-

sufficiency activity that allows them to meet

two basic needs: food and health. Knowledge

of relationships allows us to understand the

human-nature interaction, uses, and pressure

of use, as well as the importance of the rela-

tionship between mammals and coffee planta-

tions under shade. With this, researchers and

decision-makers can facilitate the identification

of the species that require greater protection

(Zavala-Sánchez et al., 2018).

From this view, the mammals associated

with coffee agroecosystems are of great ecologi-

cal importance due to the role they play in the

environment as seed dispersers, which con-

tributes to the conservation of biodiversity and

the maintenance of crop productivity. In addi-

tion, many of these mammals are important

for the diet and local economy of San Gabriel

Mixtepec, which highlights their ecological,

cultural, and socioeconomic value. Something

important to highlight is the little interest that

is observed in the new generations that live in

the most anthropocentric areas, concerning the

interest shown by the young people who live in

the rancherias or on the outskirts of the munic-

ipality which, in turn, they and their families

are related to some productive activity such as

coffee, corn, etc., because they show knowledge

not only of the mammals of the community but

of the entire environment that surrounds them.

Ethical statement: The authors declare

that they all agree with this publication and

made significant contributions; that there is no

conflict of interest of any kind; and that we fol-

lowed all pertinent ethical and legal procedures

and requirements. All financial sources are fully

and clearly stated in the acknowledgments sec-

tion. A signed document has been filed in the

journal archives.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank the inhabitants of the munici-

pality of San Gabriel Mixtepec, Oaxaca. To

Mr. Guillermo Rojas Saldaña, Francisco Asun-

ción Rojas Ramírez, and Mr. Arnulfo González

Mendoza for their assistance in the field (Finca

Jamaica farm).

To the Communal Property Committee of

San Gabriel Mixtepec for the facilities provided

to carry out this work.

To the College of Postgraduates and the

National Council of Humanities, Science, and

Technology (CONAHCyT) for the scholarship

awarded to Karina Madrid Espinosa.

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