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Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075, Vol. 73: e59298, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado Abr. 29, 2025)
The effect of macrophytes on the presence and population structure
of the red swamp crayfish Procambarus clarkii
(Decapoda: Cambaridae) in neotropical ecosystems
Isabella González-Gamboa1, 2*; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7361-0761
Yimy Herrera-Martínez1; https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8797-3021
Yesid de los Ángeles González-Ruiz1, 2; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9098-3260
1. Research group-Manejo Integrado de Ecosistemas y Biodiversidad XIUÂ, Escuela de Biología, Universidad Pedagógica
y Tecnológica de Colombia, Avenida Central del Norte 39-115, Tunja, Boyacá, Colombia; isabellagonza94@gmail.com
(*Correspondence), yimyherrera@gmail.com, yesidgon01@gmail.com
2. Departamento de Biologia Animal, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Minas
Gerais, Brazil.
Received 09-VIII-2024. Corrected 17-XII-2024. Accepted 02-IV-2025.
ABSTRACT
Introduction: The red swamp crayfish, Procambarus clarkii, is a crustacean species native to Mexico and the
United States. It has been introduced around the world, often becoming established as an invasive exotic species.
Since its introduction in 1985 in Colombia, no studies have been carried out to determine factors that influence
the presence of the species in high mountain ecosystems.
Objective: To evaluate the relationship over time between macrophytes and the different stages of development
of P. c l a r k i i in a tropical high Andean aquatic ecosystem.
Methods: A new collection method called “macrophyte sweep” was standardized. This method ensured the
collection of crayfish of all possible sizes, especially juveniles. Sampling was carried out bimonthly for seven
months. The morphometry of P. c l a r k i i was evaluated in three macrophytes: Juncus effusus, Ludwigia peruviana,
and Polygonum punctatum.
Results: A total of 778 individuals were collected, of which 365 were females, 344 males, and 69 sexually inde-
terminate. The total population density was 6.48 ind/m2. Most organisms were found on P. punctatum (71.9 %),
followed by L. peruviana (17.7 %) and J. effusus (10.28 %). The largest and heaviest organisms were recorded
in September in all three macrophytes, while the smallest were collected in July and May. P. c l a r k i i exhibited a
greater affinity for P. punctatum in its different developmental stages, possibly because it offers greater structural
complexity in the submerged zone, providing shelter for juveniles and a food source for adults.
Conclusions: Our results highlight that much of the colonization success of P. cl a r k i i is due to the relationship
between macrophytes and the development of different life stages in neotropical ecosystems.
Key words: exotic species; invasive; aquatic plants; juvenile; size; high Andean.
RESUMEN
Efecto de las macrófitas sobre la presencia y estructura poblacional del cangrejo rojo americano
Procambarus clarkii (Decapoda: Cambaridae) en ecosistemas neotropicales.
Introducción: El cangrejo rojo americano, Procambarus clarkii, es una especie de crustáceo originaria de México
y Estados Unidos. Se ha introducido en todo el mundo, estableciéndose a menudo como especie exótica invasora.
https://doi.org/10.15517/rev.biol.trop..v73i1.59298
AQUATIC ECOLOGY
2Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075 Vol. 73: e59298, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado Abr. 29, 2025)
INTRODUCTION
The physical configuration and heteroge-
neity of microhabitats in aquatic ecosystems
are determining factors that affect the dis-
tribution, survival, growth and structure of
populations (Wang et al., 2018). Macrophytes,
which are aquatic plants, play an essential role
in the structural complexity of aquatic habitats
(Thomaz & Cunha, 2010). Depending on their
form, stratum and distribution, these plants
provide shelter and food, especially in littoral
zones (Choi et al., 2014; Son et al., 2021).
The architectural complexity of macro-
phytes has been characterized using fractal
dimension (FD), a metric that quantifies the
rate of increase in the linear distance between
two points across various scales (Morse et al.,
1985). This measure enables the assessment
of the spatial and morphological irregularity
of the plants. It allows for a three-dimensional
evaluation of the space occupied by the plant
within a water body, and how this influences
the animals that may potentially colonize the
plant for various purposes, such as shelter and
food (Gee & Warwick, 1994; Jeffries, 1993;
Shorrocks et al., 1991). Plants with more com-
plex architectures have an FD close to 2, while
those with simpler structures have an FD close
to 0 (McAbendroth et al., 2005). In macro-
phytes from Andean ecosystems such as Polygo-
num, Ludwigia and Juncus, a complexity of 1.44;
1.42 and 1.33, respectively, have been identified
(Fernández & Florencia, 2019; McAbendroth et
al., 2005; Yofukuji et al., 2021).
Architectural complexity has been corre-
lated with the presence of some crustaceans in
their early life stages (Thomaz & Cunha, 2010).
Crustaceans, such as the red swamp crayfish,
Procambarus clarkii (Girard, 1852), can be
affected by macrophytes (Madzivanzira et al.,
2023), as they are typical inhabitants of littoral
zones, where they seek food and shelter, and
burrow during part of their reproductive cycle
(Gherardi & Barbaresi, 2007; Nyström, 2002;
Nyström et al., 1999). For example, it has been
described how the presence of the macrophyte
Ludwigia repens Forst. serves as a refuge for
juvenile P. c l a r ki i to protect themselves from the
cannibalism of adult crayfish, causing the latter
to focus more on other prey, such as tadpoles
(Cruz & Rebelo, 2005; Jordan et al., 1996).
Desde su introducción en 1985 en Colombia, no se han realizado estudios para determinar los factores que influ-
yen en la presencia de la especie en ecosistemas de alta montaña.
Objetivo: Evaluar la relación en el tiempo entre las macrófitas y los diferentes estadios de desarrollo de P. cl a r ki i
en un ecosistema acuático tropical altoandino.
Métodos: Para ello se estandarizó un nuevo método de recolecta denominado “jameo de macrófitas. Este método
aseguró la recolección de cangrejos de río de todos los tamaños posibles, especialmente juveniles. El muestreo
se realizó bimensualmente durante siete meses. Se evaluó la morfometría de P. c l a r k i i en tres macrófitas: Juncus
effusus, Ludwigia peruviana y Polygonum punctatum.
Resultados: Se recolectaron 778 individuos, de los cuales 365 eran hembras, 344 machos y 69 sexualmente inde-
terminados. La densidad de población total fue de 6.48 ind/m2. La mayoría de los organismos se encontraron
sobre P. punctatum (71.9 %), seguido de L. peruviana (17.7 %) y J. effusus (10.28 %). Los organismos más grandes
y pesados se registraron en septiembre en las tres macrófitas, mientras que los más pequeños se recogieron en
julio y mayo. P. c l a r k i i mostró una mayor afinidad por P. punctatum en sus diferentes estadios de desarrollo, posi-
blemente porque ofrece una mayor complejidad estructural en la zona sumergida, proporcionando refugio a los
juveniles y fuente de alimento a los adultos.
Conclusiones: Nuestros resultados ponen de manifiesto que gran parte del éxito de colonización de P. cl a r -
kii se debe a la relación entre las macrófitas y el desarrollo de las diferentes etapas vitales en los ecosistemas
neotropicales.
Palabras clave: especies exóticas; invasivas; plantas acuáticas; juveniles; tamaño; alto andino.
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Although there are studies on the popula-
tion behavior of P. c l a r ki i and its possible areas
of occupation and invasion in tropical America
(Camacho-Portocarrero et al., 2020; Palaoro
et al., 2013; Scalici, & Gherardi, 2007), the
relationship between the macrophytes present
in these invaded areas and the different stages
of the life cycle of the red swamp crayfish is
still unclear. We propose that rooted floating
and emergent macrophytes, such as Polygonum
and Ludwigia, due to their higher density and
architectural complexity, may provide suitable
habitats for the early life stages of crayfish. In
contrast, emergent macrophytes with simpler
structures, such as Juncus, could serve as refug-
es for crayfish in more advanced stages. There-
fore, it is essential to identify, through repeated
assessments over time, the relationship between
macrophyte architecture and the distribution of
Procambarus clarkii populations in a tropical
high Andean aquatic ecosystem.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area: The study was conducted in
the cooling lakes of a thermoelectric plant
in the municipality of Paipa (5°45’58.94” N
& 73°8’34.61” W), Department of Boyacá,
Colombia (SMF 1). This artificial body of
water originates from the diversion of part of
the Chicamocha River to be channeled into a
lentic system for industrial use. The climate is
cold and very dry, with a bimodal regime of two
rainy seasons in March-May and September-
November, while there is low rainfall in June-
July and December-January. The average total
annual precipitation is 881 mm, with an average
temperature of 13.7 °C (Instituto de Hidrología
Meteorología y Estudios Ambientales, 2022).
Sampling of crayfish in macrophytes and
physicochemical parameters of water: The
crayfish were collected over seven months,
using the “macrophyte sweep” method with
hand nets 30 x 30 x 20 cm with a 2 mm
pore mesh. This method consists of manually
lifting and shaking the macrophytes located
in 10-meter-long strips and up to one meter
away from the shore. Simultaneously, two peo-
ple, using hand nets and zig-zag movements,
remove the organisms attached to the macro-
phytes and collect those that become detached
from the plants. Subsequently, the plant materi-
al is placed in white trays to extract the juvenile
crayfish that remain attached.
Sampling was conducted in three coastal
strips, each dominated exclusively by one of
the three most abundant macrophyte species.
To prevent the mixing of influences from these
aquatic plants on crayfish, distinct zones were
designated for each species, ensuring no over-
lap between them. This approach facilitated an
independent evaluation of the impact of each
type of aquatic vegetation on the crayfish popu-
lation, thereby minimizing potential biases in
the results. The species studied included spot-
ted knotweed (Polygonum punctatum Elliott),
Peruvian primrose (Ludwigia peruviana L.),
and soft rush (Juncus effusus L.) (SMF 1). P.
punctatum, native to America, inhabits wet-
lands, floodplains and ecotones in tropical and
subtropical regions, forming dense colonies
along the banks of water bodies (Quirino et
al., 2019). It is commonly used for slope sta-
bilization due to its ability to mitigate erosion
(Keddy, 2010). L. peruviana, also native to
South America, is found along the shores of
water bodies and has deep roots that create an
ideal habitat for fish egg-laying, underscoring
its importance in fisheries management (Gal-
lardo & Aldridge, 2013). Introduced as an orna-
mental plant on other continents, it has become
invasive due to its rapid growth and adaptability
(Jacobs et al., 1994). J. effusus is a cosmopolitan
species that thrives in humid environments and
on steep slopes, demonstrating remarkable tol-
erance to drought and fluctuating water levels,
thanks to its aerenchymatous tissues (Visser
& Bögemann, 2006). It is widely used in bio-
remediation projects to improve water quality
in acidic and polluted wetlands by adsorbing
pollutants (Fyson, 2000; Syranidou et al., 2017).
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In each sampling strip, oxygen concentra-
tion was measured using a WTW 3205, con-
ductivity with a WTW 3110, and both pH and
temperature with a WTW 3110. The collected
organisms were refrigerated and transported
to the Integrated Ecosystem and Biodiversity
Management Laboratory (XIUÂ) at the Uni-
versidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colom-
bia, where they were euthanized by freezing
at -20 °C.
Morphometry and size analysis: In the
laboratory, using a Mitutoyo digital calibrator
of 0.1 mm precision, the following measure-
ments were taken from the crayfish: Total
length (TL), which was measured from the tip
of the rostrum to the end of the telson; carapace
length (CL), which was taken from the tip of
the rostrum to the end of the cephalothorax;
post orbital length (POCL), which was taken
from the posterior end of the eye to the end
of the cephalothorax (Anastácio & Marques,
1995) (SMF 1).
Each organism was weighed without the
claws, using a 0.1 g digital scale. The claws were
not included because some individuals had lost
or were at different stages of the regeneration of
these structures. Organisms with a total length
of less than 60 mm were considered juveniles,
and those larger than this size were considered
adults, according to Cano and Ocete (2000).
Length intervals were obtained using the post-
orbital carapace length (POCL), as described
by Anastácio et al. (2009) and Hamasaki et al.
(2020), with each interval representing a 5 mm
size range (Rodríguez-Almaraz, 2001).
Data analysis: Environmental variables
were compared using Spearmans rank cor-
relation analysis to evaluate the influence of
variables on organisms by season and by plant
species. Biological data were evaluated using
Shapiro-Wilks normality tests and a three-
way analysis of variance to make compari-
sons between months, macrophytes and sex
(excluding data from sexually indeterminate
individuals). Multiple comparisons were con-
ducted with Tukey’s post hoc to determine
which variables were different. Finally, to
observe the contribution of variables to the
dissimilarity between macrophytes, a SIMPER
similarity percentage analysis was applied with
Euclidean and Bray Curtis distance indices. Sta-
tistical analyses were performed using Primer 7
and SigmaPlot 14.
RESULTS
Physicochemical parameters of water:
Environmental variables showed that the body
of water was, on average, warm, at 19.3 °C
(15.6-20.9), with high conductivity 152.2 µS/
cm (130.1-164.4) and low oxygenation at 3.7
mg/L (1.44-9.1). There was an inverse correla-
tion between dissolved oxygen and conductiv-
ity (R = -0.93, p < 0.05) and between the latter
and pH (R = -0.52, p < 0.05). In microhabitats
containing P. punctatum, a lower temperature
was observed compared to those dominated
by L. peruviana and J. effusus. Among the envi-
ronmental variables, pH exhibited the highest
percentage of similarity between P. punctatum
and L. peruviana, accounting for 49.14 % of the
similarity between these two habitats. Dissolved
oxygen was the second most significant vari-
able, demonstrating a 28.8 % similarity between
P. punctatum and J. effusus. Lastly, conductivity
emerged as the variable that contributed most
to the similarity between J. effusus and L. peru-
viana, with a contribution of 25.8 %. Regarding
the sampling periods, the highest dissolved
oxygen and pH were observed in May, while
July was the month with the lowest temperature
(17 °C) compared to the other months. As for
the substrate, in the area of P. punctatum it was
muddy, for J. effusus it was clayey and for L.
peruviana it was rocky (SMT 1).
Red swamp crayfish: During the study,
778 individual crayfish were collected from
the three macrophytes evaluated. Of the indi-
viduals collected, 365 were females, 344 were
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Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075, Vol. 73: e59298, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado Abr. 29, 2025)
males and 69 individuals could not be sexu-
ally identified. The total population density
averaged 6.48 ind/m2, with the macrophyte P.
punctatum having the highest population den-
sity with 14 ind/m2, followed by L. peruviana
with 3.45 ind/m2 and J. effusus with 2 ind/m2.
The month with the highest population density
was September (10.4 ind/m2), followed by July
(7.3 ind/m2), November (5.3 ind/m2), and May
(2.8 ind/m2).
Males were, on average, slightly heavier
and larger compared to females, but without a
significant difference (Weight M = 8.71 gr, F =
7.92 gr, F = 0.001, d.f. = 1, p = 0.97; TL M = 65.6
mm, F = 61.90 mm, F = 0.08; d.f. = 1, p = 0.77)
(SMT 2). May presented significant differences
in both weight and length, compared to the
other months (p < 0.000), while July, September
and November did not show significant differ-
ences (p > 0.58).
By macrophyte species, the highest num-
ber of organisms was collected in P. punctatum
(71.98 %) with a TL range of 8.1-110.6 mm;
followed by L. peruviana (17.7 %-TL range:
11.6-153.6 mm) and J. effusus (10.2 %-TL
range: 40.5-106.1 mm). Significant differences
in TL, CL, POCL were found comparing J. effu-
sus with the other macrophytes (p < 0.004). In
terms of weight, the only significant differences
were found between J. effusus and L. peruviana
(p < 0.014).
September was the month when the largest
and heaviest organisms were recorded in the
three macrophytes, while the smallest organ-
isms were collected in July and May (SMT 2).
The largest organisms were found in L. peruvi-
ana, while the smallest were found in P. p u n c -
tatum. The overall female:male sex ratio was 1
: 0.9. By macrophyte species, in P. punctatum
it was 1 : 1.1; in L. peruviana 1 : 0.8 and in J.
effusus 1 : 0.9.
Size ranges: Of the nine established size
intervals of P. c l a r k i i ; in J. effusus, mainly large
crayfish were found (POCL > 27 mm-TL 74.0
mm). In the case of P. punctatum, crayfish of all
sizes were found (POCL 2.7-43.5 mm), and the
highest abundance of organisms was observed
in the size interval between 2.6 mm and 12.59
mm POCL. Statistical differences (p < 0.000)
were found in the length intervals of all catch-
es and also among macrophytes (p < 0.001),
except between J. effusus and L. peruviana (p =
0.85) (SMF 2, SMF 3).
In general, the presence of adult crayfish
was recorded in all plants during the month of
May, and from July onward, a gradual increase
of smaller individuals was observed, reach-
ing a maximum abundance in September. In
P. punctatum, larger organisms were observed
in September compared to May (p < 0.02). In
L. peruviana there was a difference in the size
intervals evaluated (p < 0.01), except between
May-November and July-September. In the
case of J. effusus, similar lengths were found
during all months (p = 0.68). (SMF 2).
DISCUSSION
Our results demonstrated a significant
influence of macrophytes on the population
structure and distribution of P. c l a r k i i in high
Andean aquatic ecosystems. The selection of
various macrophyte species, such as P. puncta-
tum, L. peruviana, and J. effusus, appears to be
influenced by the structural complexity of these
plants, indicating that plant architecture plays
a crucial role in the colonization and survival
of different life stages of this invasive species.
Specifically, P. punctatum served as the primary
habitat for the most vulnerable life stages of
the red swamp crayfish (juveniles), support-
ing over 70 % of the studied population. This
trend persisted throughout the study period.
The complex structure of this macrophyte,
reflected in its fractal dimension (FD = 1.44)
(Fernández & Florencia, 2019), includes both
floating and submerged zones, which create a
favorable microenvironment that offers shelter
from predation and cannibalism, as well as food
resources and spawning grounds (Gherardi &
Barbaresi, 2007; Haubrock et al., 2019; Jordan
6Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075 Vol. 73: e59298, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado Abr. 29, 2025)
et al., 1996; Quirino et al., 2019). Furthermore,
among the various macrophytes evaluated,
crayfish exhibit a clear preference for Polygo-
num, when this macrophyte is present (Gordon,
2000). Its dense submerged zone, in particular,
appears to provide protection for juveniles;
this phenomenon has been documented in
other studies examining macrophyte-crayfish
interactions (Cruz & Rebelo, 2005; Thomaz &
Cunha, 2010).
These findings underscore the crucial role
that macrophytes play in the ecology of Pro-
cambarus clarkii, serving not only as a primary
food source but also as essential habitats for
colonization and survival throughout its vari-
ous life stages. Previous studies indicate that
P. c l ar k i i demonstrates a significant preference
for consuming macrophytes over animal prey,
suggesting that its proximity to these plants is
closely associated with the availability of plant-
based resources (Gherardi & Barbaresi, 2007;
Rivera et al., 2024). This behavior is observed
not only in the deeper (profundal) zones of
the lake but also extends to active foraging in
littoral areas (Dörr et al., 2006; Hamasaki et
al., 2020; Haubrock et al., 2019; Rivera et al.,
2024). An important aspect of the ecology of
P. c l ar k i i is its association with Ludwigia peru-
viana. Previous studies have demonstrated a
positive interaction between L. grandiflora and
crayfish, wherein the fragmentation of this
macrophyte at high crayfish densities promotes
the dispersal of both species (Thouvenot et al.,
2017). Additionally, as an emergent or semi-ter-
restrial species (Lambert et al., 2010; Oziegbe &
Faluyi, 2012), L. peruviana provides shelter and
resources for P. c l ar k i i both in and out of the
water, enhancing its capacity to colonize new
habitats (Gallardo & Aldridge, 2013; Loureiro
et al., 2015). Consequently, both P. punctatum
and L. peruviana can be considered “nurseries
for red crayfish, a phenomenon also observed
with other macrophytes and microcrustaceans
(Choi et al., 2014). In contrast with other mac-
rophytes, J. effusus was not utilized by juvenile
P. c l a r k i i , which may be attributed to its simple
structure, making it less suitable for providing
shelter during this developmental stage (Yofu-
kuji et al., 2021). In contrast, adult crayfish
appear to prefer J. effusus, suggesting that this
macrophyte offers specific ecological resources
or advantages for them. It is possible that it
serves as a habitat for organisms that are preyed
upon by the adults or that the macrophyte itself
is consumed by them. Previous studies have
indicated that related species, such as Juncus
bufonius, have increased in abundance and
distribution due to consumption by P. c l ar k i i
(Lovas-Kiss et al., 2018). Given that J. effusus
is a cosmopolitan macrophyte that thrives in
stagnant water bodies and can withstand both
prolonged droughts and floods (Krzciuk &
Galuszka, 2020; Syranidou et al., 2017; Visser
& Bögemann, 2006; Xu & Chang, 2017), its
presence in high Andean ecosystems may pro-
vide resources to P. c l a r ki i on a continual basis
(González-Gamboa et al., 2022), potentially
facilitating the expansion of this invasive spe-
cies. It is important to consider that, in some
instances, the presence of P. c l ar k i i has led to the
local extinction of macrophytes due to exces-
sive consumption (Madzivanzira et al., 2023).
This scenario should be taken into account
in future studies examining the impact of this
invasive species in high Andean ecosystems.
The results underscore that macrophytes play a
crucial role in the ecology of P. c l ar k i i , not only
as a primary food source (Gherardi & Barbare-
si, 2007; Rivera et al., 2024), which the crayfish
frequently forages in littoral zones (Dörr et al.,
2006; Hamasaki et al., 2020; Haubrock et al.,
2019), but also as essential habitats for its sur-
vival throughout various stages of its life cycle.
The population of P. c l a r ki i exhibited dis-
tinct temporal characteristics. In May, no juve-
niles were observed; however, in July, a period
of juvenile abundance commenced and contin-
ued until November, when recruitment peaks
seemingly occurred. This pattern appears to
be characteristic of populations in all aquatic
ecosystems within the high Andean zone of
Colombia. In Italy, where the red crayfish is
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also an invasive species, a similar pattern was
identified: the smallest individuals increased in
number toward the end of the year, while the
highest abundance was recorded in July and
September, coinciding with the summer season
when recruitment takes place (Barbaresi et al.,
2004; Dörr & Scalici, 2013). It is plausible that
the bimodal rainfall regime in the Colombian
Andes contributes to at least two spawning
peaks. Studies of P. c l ar k i i in both Mediter-
ranean and tropical regions have documented
two annual spawning peaks (Scalici et al.,
2010). Environmental factors such as tempera-
ture and water availability, including rainfall
patterns, are key regulators of reproductive
cycles (Anastácio & Marques, 1995; Hamasaki
et al., 2023). Future studies should validate this
hypothesis through annual analysis of the cray-
fish population in the region.
Regarding the size and population density
of P. c l a r k i i in the water body studied, it was
found that the organisms are smaller compared
to those reported in Europe and Africa. For
example, in Morocco they reach a total length
of approximately 78.2 mm, in Spain 93.2 mm,
and in Italy they have a cephalothorax length of
48.9 mm (Alcorlo et al., 2009; Dörr et al., 2006;
El Qoraychy et al., 2011; Peruzza et al., 2015).
However, the population density was similar or
slightly higher than reported in other countries
where the crayfish is invasive (Arteaga, 2009;
Piscia et al., 2011). The density of P. puncta-
tum found in our study is similar to marshes
in Louisiana and macrophytes in South Korea
(Choi et al., 2021; Huner & Barr, 1991; Lutz &
Wolters, 1986), where established populations
of red crayfish exist and continuous data on
environmental factors are available.
During our study, we found an optimal
temperature in the water body for red crayfish
development, similar to other studies (Barba-
resi et al., 2004; Liu et al., 2013). However, the
temperature values recorded are atypical for
the high Andean region of Colombia (Roldán-
Pérez & Ramírez-Restrepo, 2008) due to power
generation by coal burning, which raises the
water temperature to the ideal point for red
crayfish development (Chucholl, 2011).
Finally, in our study, we developed a meth-
od for the active collection of red crayfish in
littoral macrophytes. This method captures
individuals of all sizes, from the larval stage to
the adult stage (cephalothorax from 4.1 mm),
overcoming the limitations of other methods,
such as traps (Barbaresi et al., 2004). With this
new method, we can evaluate the species in all
stages of development in the natural habitat.
Although it has some disadvantages, such as its
use in deep littoral zones, where the researcher
cannot stand close to the shore, it represents
a significant advance in the collection of red
crayfish and provides valuable information on
the species.
Macrophytes play a crucial role in the
invasion and establishment of P. c l a r ki i in high
Andean aquatic ecosystems by providing shel-
ter, food, and essential habitat throughout all
life stages. P. punctatum hosts more than 70
% of the juvenile population, underscoring its
significance as a habitat, while L. peruviana,
due to its adaptability and dispersal capabilities,
is also well-suited for this species. In contrast,
J. effusus is likely utilized as a food source for
adults, offering limited support for other life
stages. The structural complexity of macro-
phytes significantly influences the presence
of juveniles and adults, with more complex
plants promoting greater juvenile abundance.
The ecological plasticity of P. c l a r k i i enables it
to exploit diverse resources in the ecosystems
where it is introduced, facilitating its expan-
sion. Furthermore, the high population density
of P. c l a r k i i indicates that this species is well
established in the ecosystem, and it appears
that the reproductive cycle is influenced by the
bimodal rainfall regime in the Andean region
of Colombia, with peak recruitment occurring
from July to November. Future research should
focus on analyzing how the implementation of
management practices based on macrophyte
control, along with an assessment of environ-
mental factors, could help mitigate the adverse
8Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075 Vol. 73: e59298, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado Abr. 29, 2025)
ecological impacts associated with the invasion
of the red crayfish.
Ethical statement: The authors declare
that they all agree with this publication and
made significant contributions; that there is no
conflict of interest of any kind; and that we fol-
lowed all pertinent ethical and legal procedures
and requirements. All financial sources are fully
and clearly stated in the acknowledgments sec-
tion. A signed document has been filed in the
journal archives.
See supplementary material
a23v73n1-suppl1
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by “Evaluación
de un biosuplemento en la pigmentación de la
fase de engorde de trucha arcoíris (Oncorhyn-
chus mykiss), a partir del cangrejo rojo invasor
(Procambarus clarkii) como fuente de astax-
antina, project Grant [number 75367] funded
through the “Convocatoria 865-2019-Convoca-
toria para el cierre de brechas sector agropecu-
ario Boyacá” by the Gobernación de Boyacá
and Ministerio de Ciencias Tecnología e Inno-
vación of Colombia. This project was supported
by Fundación Neotropical, ITALCOL S.A and
Universidad Nacional de Colombia.
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