Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075, Vol. 73(S1): e64155, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado Mar. 03, 2025)

Towards transdisciplinary and transformative

coastal marine research: insights from Costa Rica

Astrid Sánchez-Jiménez1,2; https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1648-0232

Maraja Riechers3; https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3916-8102

Álvaro Morales-Ramírez2; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0883-5366

1. Leibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research Warnemünde, Seestrasse 15 D-18119 Rostock, Germany; asanjim@gmail.com

(*Correspondence)

2. Research Center of Marine Science and Limnology (CIMAR), University of Costa Rica, 11501-2060, San José, Costa

Rica; alvaro.morales@ucr.ac.cr

3. Thünen Institute of Baltic Sea Fisheries, Alter Hafen Süd 2, 18069 Rostock, Germany; maraja.riechers@thuenen.de

Received 06-I-2024. Corrected 25-II-2025. Accepted 26-II-2025.

ABSTRACT

Introduction: Transformative transdisciplinary research (TTDR) aims to address complex sustainability issues

of our times by engaging researchers from different disciplines, practitioners, individuals, and policymakers.

Objective: This literature review is a first structured effort to understand how marine-coastal research published

in English and Spanish can drive transformative change towards sustainability in Costa Rica (n = 30 articles)

and is expected to foster critical reflection on the role of scientific systems in the design, production, and use of

knowledge.

Results: The results show that in Costa Rica, knowledge production remains largely unidirectional, with stake-

holder consultation prevailing over co-production. It highlights the need to foster collaborative research that

includes historically underrepresented groups, such as women. Power and funding dynamics determine research

priorities, with efforts concentrated in the North Pacific, while the Caribbean region remains underrepresented.

Conclusions: Furthermore, we highlight ways forward to transformative research: a focus on leverage points

such as co-production of knowledge, creation of safe spaces for inclusive dialogue, and reform of funding models

to support long-term interdisciplinary collaboration. As Costa Rica will co-host the upcoming Ocean Conference

in France, this moment presents an opportunity to align national research efforts with global transformative

trends, ensuring that marine research evolves towards more inclusive and action-oriented frameworks.

Key words: marine sciences; social-ecological systems; sustainability transformation; co-production; Costa Rica;

Global South; transdisciplinary research.

RESUMEN

Hacia una investigación transdisciplinaria y transformadora en

el ámbito costero marino: perspectivas desde Costa Rica

Introducción: La investigación transdisciplinaria transformadora (TTDR, por sus siglas en inglés) tiene como

objetivo abordar cuestiones complejas de sostenibilidad de nuestros tiempos mediante la participación de inves-

tigadores de diferentes disciplinas, profesionales, individuos y formuladores de políticas.

Objetivo: Esta revisión de la literatura es un primer esfuerzo estructurado para comprender cómo la inves-

tigación marino-costera publicada en inglés y español puede impulsar un cambio transformador hacia la

https://doi.org/10.15517/rev.biol.trop..v73iS1.64155

SUPPLEMENT

2Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075 Vol. 73(S1): e64155, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado Mar. 03, 2025)

INTRODUCTION

In the Anthropocene our ocean is impact-

ed by myriad challenges and pressures, hence

advancing towards sustainability demands the

coexistence of human activities, ecosystem con-

servation and restoration (Rockström et al.,

2023). Scientists, institutional actors, and local

stakeholders should work transdisciplinarily

to rethink and transform the way we create,

consume and interact within social-ecological

systems to foster well-being (Partelow et al.,

2023). The integration of different perspectives,

and their interrelationships, is vital to over-

come conflicting societal interests (Raymond

et al., 2023). Collaborative knowledge produc-

tion between academia and society is key to

envisioning desirable futures and identifying

the transformations necessary to achieve more

sustainable states (Nash et al., 2022).

Strategies to understand and address the

unprecedented environmental changes of our

time require systems thinking in social-eco-

logical systems (SES). SES consider marine

and coastal areas in an integrated manner,

addressing physical, chemical, and biological

factors that affect and interact with society

(Popova et al., 2023). Transdisciplinarity can

bring socioeconomic and ecological systems

together through research that integrates a

diverse number of academic disciplines and

societal stakeholders (Bennett et al., 2017).

One of the main advantages of transdiscipli-

narity is the freedom to encompass different

perspectives to approach complex problems,

without allowing the premises of a particular

discipline to overshadow the view of problems

and solutions.

Integrating social, cultural, economic, and

political dimensions into the ecological and

physical factors of marine coastal management

and governance demands a Transformative

Transdisciplinary Research (TTDR), that is,

solution-oriented research that understands

the ocean as a complex SES, uses innova-

tive participatory methods, collaborates with

policymakers, local communities, and industry

stakeholders, and aims for long-term impact.

Democratic approaches that enable the inte-

gration of multiple knowledge systems, while

strengthening the link between scientists and

society (Loch & Riechers, 2021), for example,

methods such as participatory action research

and citizen science, can greatly enhance social

inclusion. A clear intention is also required to

drive fundamental change in the way marine

ecosystems are understood, managed and gov-

erned to achieve a more sustainable and just

futures (Bennett, 2022; Chambers et al., 2021;

Pereira et al., 2020).

The United Nations has declared a Decade

of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development

sostenibilidad en Costa Rica (n = 30 artículos) y se espera que fomente la reflexión crítica sobre el papel de los

sistemas científicos en el diseño, la producción y el uso del conocimiento.

Resultados: Los resultados muestran que en Costa Rica, la producción de conocimiento sigue siendo en gran

medida unidireccional, y la consulta a las partes interesadas prevalece sobre la coproducción. Destaca la necesi-

dad de fomentar la investigación colaborativa que incluya a grupos históricamente subrepresentados, como las

mujeres. Las dinámicas de poder y financiamiento determinan las prioridades de investigación, con esfuerzos

concentrados en el Pacífico Norte, mientras que la región del Caribe sigue estando subrepresentada.

Conclusiones: Además, destacamos las formas de avanzar hacia una investigación transformadora: un enfoque

en puntos de influencia como la coproducción de conocimiento, la creación de espacios seguros para el diálogo

inclusivo y la reforma de los modelos de financiamiento para apoyar la colaboración interdisciplinaria a largo

plazo. Como Costa Rica será coanfitrión de la próxima Conferencia sobre los Océanos en Francia, este momento

presenta una oportunidad para alinear los esfuerzos nacionales de investigación con las tendencias transforma-

doras globales, asegurando que la investigación marina evolucione hacia marcos más inclusivos y orientados a

la acción.

Palabras clave: ciencias marinas; sistemas social-ecológicos; transformación de la sostenibilidad; coproducción;

Costa Rica; sur global; investigación transdisciplinaria.

Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075, Vol. 73(S1): e64155, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado Mar. 03, 2025)

(2021–2030) to ensure that marine research

contributes to improved conditions for ocean

resilience, as well as prosperity and equity

for current and future generations (Franke

et al., 2023). Transformative transdisciplinary

research (TTDR) aims to address complex

real-world sustainability problems by involving

researchers from different disciplines, profes-

sionals, peoples, and policymakers (Augenstein

et al., 2024). Instead of merely making incre-

mental improvements, its goal is to enable

transformative change, which means fostering

systemic shifts in the management, conserva-

tion, and policy-making of marine resources by

co-producing more effective and equitable solu-

tions that are grounded in real-world contexts,

TTDR also empowers individuals and commu-

nities to drive and catalyze change (Grünhagen

et al., 2022). and aims for long-term goals.

Achieving the Sustainable Development

Goals (SDGs) implies that conservation initia-

tives are locally relevant and culturally appro-

priate (Zheng et al., 2021). The Third United

Nations Ocean Conference (UNOC3), a major

milestone in the scope of the United Nations

Ocean Decade, will be held in Nice, France,

from June 9 to 13, 2025, with Costa Rica as a

co-host. UNOC3 responds to a demand for

transdisciplinary research with diverse ocean

stakeholders to accelerate action-oriented solu-

tions and transformative change for both peo-

ple and the ocean. However, despite global calls

for transformative change in ocean governance

and sustainability, there is still limited under-

standing of how transdisciplinary research con-

cretely enables sustainability transformations

in Global South regions like Costa Rica. This

article addresses this gap by examining the role

of transdisciplinary research in transforming

social-ecological challenges through a system-

atic literature review of scientific articles in

English and Spanish, focusing on coastal and

marine areas in Costa Rica.

By examining Costa Rica as a case study,

this research provides insights into a specific

national context, while offering lessons for

other regions in the Global South where marine

sustainability go hand in hand with social

inequalities. Emphasizing the dimensions of

history, equity, and power relations is crucial

to promoting just and effective transformations

towards sustainability. This article explores how

transdisciplinary research in marine sciences

can facilitate sustainability transformations.

Specifically, it asks: (1) What is marine TTDR

like in Costa Rica, including which studies can

be considered marine TTDR, when were they

published, what are the authors’ countries of

affiliation, and what sustainability issues do

they address; (2) what is the role of marine

research in solving social-ecological challenges

in Costa Rica, counting who is involved in

knowledge production for sustainability, how

do different actors (academics, policymakers,

and local communities) collaborate?, where

does TTDR is developed, and at what stage of

transformation are the SES under study?

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Transformative transdisciplinary

research (TTDR): The concept of transfor-

mative transdisciplinary research (TTDR) is

understood for the purpose of this study as

research that focuses on innovative solving of

practical social-ecological challenges with close

involvement of different disciplines and diverse

societal actors, and that aims for long-term

impact (Augenstein et al., 2024). Etymologi-

cally, transdisciplinarity means going beyond

individual disciplines (Vilsmaier, 2021). Dis-

ciplinary research involves only one discipline

and multidisciplinarity includes several disci-

plines working individually towards a common

goal (Vilsmaier, 2021) (Fig. 1).

While interdisciplinary research is the two-

way collaboration of disciplines to achieve set

goals within a given project, transdisciplinary

research involves groups of stakeholders from

diverse backgrounds in co-design, co-evalua-

tion and co-production of knowledge (Grünha-

gen et al., 2022; Lang et al., 2012), for example

researchers from different disciplines collabo-

rating with actors from tourism, agriculture or

fisheries (Fig. 1).

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In terms of levels of participation and

societal engagement —information, consulta-

tion and co-production—(Krütli et al., 2010),

information and consultation suggest a low

level of participation among social groups.

Information is mostly conveyed unidirection-

ally, either from social actors to the academic

community or vice versa (Krütli et al., 2010).

Sharing information typically keeps the public

updated on the status of a process or project.

In contrast, consultation is frequently used to

ask the public about specific concerns or top-

ics. In co-production, non-academic actors and

researchers work together to design, analyze

and produce knowledge, establishing bidirec-

tional communication and a diverse integration

of ways of knowing (Krütli et al., 2010).

In marine research with social-ecological

impact, the transformation framework (Wiek

& Lang, 2016) can be used as a reference

as a methodological guide to understand the

stage of transformative research, which com-

prises four steps. Typically, the TTDR process

involves (i) analyzing the past and current

state, (ii) creating and evaluating probable

futures (scenarios), (iii) visualizing desirable

futures, and (iv) designing and testing interven-

tions to achieve those futures from the present

moment (backcasting).

Sustainability transformations in social-

ecological systems (SES) can be conceptual-

ized in three phases (Fig. 2): (i) the phase of

preparing for disruptive change, (ii) the phase

of navigating that disruption, and (iii) the sta-

bilization or institutionalization phase, which

serve to build the resilience of the new state

(Moore et al., 2014; Villasante et al., 2021). In

the preparation phase, a disturbance or crisis

in the SES often triggers alternative governance

systems with disruptive potential, which can be

transferred to the navigation phase and begin to

become institutionalized (Herrfahrdt-Pähle et

al., 2020). However, sustainability transforma-

tions are political processes that address asym-

metric social power relations and conflicts, and

these alternative modes can be contested by the

status quo system or actively chosen (Blythe et

al., 2018; Brodie Rudolph et al., 2020).

Systematic literature review:

Data collection: The systematic review

includes scientific articles and book chapters

Fig. 1. Level of integration across scientific disciplines. Adapted from (Grünhagen et al., 2022).

Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075, Vol. 73(S1): e64155, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado Mar. 03, 2025)

(1999–2024) in English and Spanish, focus-

ing on transdisciplinary and transformational

coastal marine research in Costa Rica. This

nation is developing in the context of the Glob-

al South. The research process was structured

using the Scopus database (www.scopus.com)

and the Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews

and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) system (Page et

al., 2021). The PRISMA system comprises three

steps: identification, selection, and inclusion, as

illustrated in Fig. 3.

The Scopus database was searched using a

search string to identify relevant peer-reviewed

that collected original data articles. The search

string consisted of screened keywords, abstract

and titles, containing: “(marine) OR (gov-

ernance) OR (social AND ecological AND

systems) (socio AND ecological AND systems)

OR (sustainability) OR (ecosystem AND ser-

vices) OR (small AND scale AND fisheries) OR

(artisanal AND fisheries) OR (psychology) OR

(perception) OR (participatory) OR (transfor-

mation) OR (communities) OR (management)

OR (workshops) OR (interviews) OR (local)

AND (costa AND rica) OR (collective) OR

(transdisciplinary) OR (women) OR (behavior)

OR (tourism) OR (engagement) OR (liveli-

hoods) OR (fishing) OR (gulf AND of AND

nicoya) OR (compliance) OR (transformation)

OR (poverty) AND (pacific) OR (restoration)

OR (conservation) AND (stakeholders)”.

Data analysis: We conducted a deductive

coding, based on following typology (Table 1):

Fig. 3. Flow diagram for a systematic literature review selection process following PRISMA. Adapted from (Baumann et al.,

2023; Page et al., 2021).

Fig. 2. Phases of sustainability transformations in social-ecological systems adapted from (Moore et al., 2014; Villasante et

al., 2021).

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(1) general characteristics of marine TDTR

in Costa Rica, we identified (i) the number of

case studies in Costa Rica on marine transdis-

ciplinary research, (ii) the years of publication

of the studies, (iii) the countries of affiliation of

the first authorship of the case studies, and (iv)

the sustainability issues addressed. To elucidate

(2) the role that marine research plays in solv-

ing social-ecological problems in Costa Rica, we

investigate (i) the type of actors that participate

in the research, (ii) in which geographic areas

of the country the studies are developed, and

(iii) how participatory research is produced,

that is, (iv) the type of participatory meth-

ods and level of participation (contribution,

collaboration or co-production), (iv) steps of

transformative change (descriptive past-current

state or scenario construction and anticipa-

tory intervention research) and the (v) phase of

transformation of the social-ecological system

(preparation, navigation or institutionalization)

RESULTS

General characteristics of TTDR marine

research in Costa Rica: Our analysis cov-

ered 30 articles on transdisciplinary transfor-

mational research conducted in marine and

coastal systems in Costa Rica (Appendix 1).

The articles ranged from 2013 (n = 1) to 2024

(n = 7). The first authorship derived from seven

different nations: Costa Rica (n = 18; 45 % of

Table 1

Typology of the transdisciplinary peer-reviewed literature in Costa Rica and its role in fostering societal participation and

solving marine social-ecological problems (interpreted by the authors).

Category Subcategory Definition or example

(1) General

characteristics

(i) N° of Published

articles

Selected articles with titles, keywords and abstracts that meet the criteria of

transdisciplinary and transformational coastal marine research in Costa Rica

(ii) Sustainability themes E.g., Conservation, fisheries management. ecosystem services

(iii) Publication years Selected from 1999–2024 as globally transdisciplinary research grew on this

period

(iv) Countries of

affiliations of first

authorship

Global North or Global South nations are used to describe socio-economic

and political divide between wealthier and poorer nations, usually related

with inequalities and the dominant research perspectives and funding sources

(2) Role played

in solving marine

social-ecological

problems

(i) Who? Stakeholders involved. E.g., fishing communities

(ii) Where? Study sites in Costa Rica. E.g., Isla Chira

Region Caribbean Sea, Pacific Ocean (North, central and South) and Gulf of Nicoya

(iii) How? Participatory methods and data analysis. E.g., interviews, workshops

Level of participation of

stakeholders

Information, consultation and co-production (Krütli et al. 2010): Sharing

information allows the public to be kept informed about the status of a

process. Consultation typically asks the public about specific topics. In co-

production, non-academic actors and researchers work together to design the

process and outcomes, establishing two-way communication.

(iv) Transformational

research (steps)

Based on Wiek and Lang (2016) and Baumann et al., 2023: (i) Descriptive

research: (a) analyzing past and current state and (b) looking for probable

futures (e.g., scenarios); (ii) Anticipatory research: forecasting paths to desir-

able futures (a) (intervention research)

(v) Phases for

transformative changes

Based on Moore et al., (2014) and Villasante et al., (2021) (i) Preparation

for disruptive change, (ii) navigating that disruption and (iii) stabilization

of alternative modes that are now institutionalized in the governance system

and embedded at the seascape level E.g., Institutionalization of new values

and the enforcement of new regulations and practices (e.g., shifting towards

desirable sustainable fishing gears).

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the 30 articles), Germany (n = 9; 23 %), United

States (n = 9; 23 %), United Kingdom (n = 1; 3

%), Colombia (n = 1; 3 %), Ecuador (n = 1; 3

%), and Australia (n = 1; 3 %). Overall, 50 % of

the first authorship came from countries in the

Global South, and the other 50 % came from

the Global North (Appendix 1).

The sustainability topics addressed in these

articles (Fig. 4) were mainly related to (1)

social-ecological approaches on coastal man-

agement (n = 66; %) (García Lozano & Heinen,

2016a; Naranjo-Madrigal et al., 2015; Palou

Zúniga et al., 2023; Partelow et al., 2019), (2)

fisheries (n = 70) and small-scale fisheries (n

= 30) (Albers et al., 2021; Bystrom et al., 2017;

Carrillo et al., 2019; Fernández Carvajal, 2013;

García Lozano & Heinen, 2016a; García Lozano

& Heinen, 2016b; Naranjo-Madrigal & van Put-

ten, 2019; Partelow et al., 2019; Partelow et al.,

2020b; Rivera et al., 2017a; Sánchez-Jiménez

et al., 2019; Sánchez-Jiménez et al., 2021), (3)

marine protected areas (n = 53) and marine

conservation (n = 30) (Albers et al., 2021;

Arias et al., 2015; López-Angarita et al., 2021;

Naranjo-Madrigal et al., 2015; O’Bryhim et al.,

2016; Partelow et al., 2019; Pereira et al., 2024;

Sardeshpande & MacMillan, 2019; Valerio-

Vargas & Espinoza, 2019) and (4) local com-

munities (n = 59) (Allen et al., 2021; Fernández

Carvajal, 2013; Little & Little, 2017; Mejías-

Balsalobre et al., 2021; O’Bryhim et al., 2016;

Rivera et al., 2017b).

On a second level of frequent topics, there

are issues of (5) collective action (Carrillo et al.,

2019; García Lozano & Heinen, 2016a; Rivera

et al., 2017a), (6) environmental perception

(Mejías-Balsalobre et al., 2021; Partelow et al.,

2021; Sánchez-Jiménez et al., 2014; Villalobos-

Cubero et al., 2023), (7) support to conserva-

tion (O’Bryhim et al., 2016; Sardeshpande &

MacMillan, 2019) and (8) alternatives to devel-

opment such as tourism (Carvache-Franco et

al., 2022; Little & Little, 2017; Palacios-Mar-

tínez & Núñez-Zamora, 2021).

Fig 4. Most frequent sustainability themes mentioned in keywords, abstract and titles of the research under scrutiny: fisheries

(n = 70), management (n = 66), community (n = 59), marine (n = 53), local (n = 43), small-scale (n = 30), conservation

(n = 30).

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Role of marine research in solving social-

ecological problems in Costa Rica:

Stakeholders involved: We found that vari-

ous groups (Fig. 5), including fishers, coastal

communities, the tourism industry, NGOs, and

researchers, are engaged in marine and coastal

management. Conversely, we observed limited

participation from women and government

institutions such as SINAC, INCOPESCA, and

the Coast Guard in the research analyzed.

Geographical focus of the research scru-

tinized: Most articles described studies in 26

study sites (Fig. 6) located in the North Pacific

(n = 14; 45.16 % of the 31 articles), followed

by the Gulf of Nicoya (29.03 %), South Pacific

(16.13 %), and Caribbean (9.68 %) (Fig. 7).

Approaches to address transdisciplinarity

and levels of participation: The articles reviewed

draw on different approaches, conceptual

frameworks and methods to address and ana-

lyze transdisciplinarity. The most used ones

were semi-structured interviews and the iden-

tification of stakeholder perceptions. Methods

often used in conjunction with deliberation

or dialogue, participant observation, mapping,

key informants, and a social-ecological frame-

work (Fig. 8). To a lesser extent, we find arti-

cles on behavior change interventions, societal

attitudes, and anecdotal records. Information

is mainly shared unidirectionally from the

social stakeholders to the academic community,

mainly as a means of consultation, while co-

production represents the smallest number of

articles analyzed for the case of Costa Rica (see

Appendix 1).

Steps of transformative change in the articles

reviewed: The review examined the steps of

transformative change in the articles under

scrutiny, based on the transformation frame-

work (Wiek & Lang, 2016). Fig. 9 displays the

frequency of articles that have implemented

steps of the transformation framework. Of

the 30 articles reviewed, all of them focused

on descriptive research (n = 30, 100 % of all

articles), specifically 100 % (n = 30) performed

a past and current state analysis (step i), and

scenario construction (step ii), was conducted

in 17 % (n = 5) of the articles. The least utilized

aspect was anticipation research at 13 % (n =

4), in which visioning desirable futures (step iii)

Fig. 5. Main societal stakeholders participating as informants or knowledge producers in Costa Rican marine transdisciplinary

research in examination.

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was present in 0 % of the research and interven-

tion research (step iv) was present in 13 % (n =

4) of the research (Fig. 3).

Phase of transformative change in the

social-ecological system: As interpreted by the

authors, the analysis of the articles revealed

that in 56 % of cases, a shock or crisis in the

social-ecological systems triggered the creation

of alternative governance systems (Prepara-

tion for Change phase). In 32 % of the cases,

the management process corresponded to the

Navigation of Change phase (Appendix 1). In

12 % of the articles, phases 1 and 2 played a role

in establishing the new regime and its stabiliza-

tion (Institutionalization phase).

DISCUSSION

Main findings: The transdisciplinary

research analyzed in this article included both

academic and non-academic perspectives that

allowed for a more inclusive view of the current

and past state of Costa Rica’s coastal marine

systems. Knowledge co-production remains the

least frequent research modality, while stake-

holder consultation is the most common. The

one-way exchange of information in several

Fig. 6. Study sites of the reviewed articles on transdisciplinary marine research in Costa Rica.

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of the reviewed articles responds to dominant

scientific approaches in which inhabitants of

the tropics are still largely seen as objects of

research rather than subjects and agents of

change (Partelow et al., 2020a). There is an

evident need for deeper engagement beyond

consultation that fosters collaboration between

researchers and stakeholders. Knowledge co-

production could lead to leverage points or

significant constructive changes in SES moving

to meaningful commitment.

In the reviewed articles, the participation

of women and government institutions such

as SINAC, INCOPESCA and the Coast Guard

is limited. One of the challenges of transdisci-

plinary marine research in Costa Rica will be

to transcend conventional divisions of science

as merely a producer of knowledge and advi-

sor, towards a system actor that intentionally

facilitates the co-design, co-evaluation, and co-

production of research projects with other

sectors. Explicitly recognizing where it will be

carried out, what points of view will count in

the research, who will define the sustainability

objectives and to whose benefit or detriment.

Methods such as participatory action research,

community led initiatives and long-term part-

nerships can be further explored as a means to

institutionalize the co-production of knowledge.

But not without simultaneously addressing the

power dynamics that hinder equal participa-

tion, particularly from marginalized groups.

People’s vulnerability to environmental

changes, access, use and management of natu-

ral areas is influenced by national and interna-

tional geopolitical power relations (Saunders

et al., 2024). Historically, rural and coastal

communities in the periphery of Costa Rica

Fig. 7. Core regions of Costa Rican marine transdisciplinary research under scrutiny. Developed by Catalina Benavides

Varela, SIGMAR-CIMAR.

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have low or very low social progress indices

(IPS) compared to the central cantons of the

country with a particular deterioration in secu-

rity, health, inclusion, water and sanitation

(Instituto Centroamericano de Administración

de Empresas, 2024; Programa de las Naciones

Unidas para el Desarrollo, 2023). Addressing

regional disparities will be a key aspect towards

transformative research, the articles reviewed

focused primarily on the North Pacific and the

Gulf of Nicoya, showing the need to expand

efforts towards underrepresented regions such

as the Caribbean and the South Pacific. In gen-

eral, in Costa Rica most of the marine research

has been carried out in the Pacific (North

Pacific and the Gulf of Nicoya) due to the logis-

tical accessibility in terms of research stations,

greater institutional presence and funding for

long-term studies (Vargas, 1995).

Currently, various calls from the Global

North for funding transdisciplinary marine

research increasingly include initiatives that

facilitate co-design, co-assessment and co-pro-

duction of knowledge between societal actors.

Fig. 8. Methods, approaches and conceptual frameworks to address transdisciplinarity in the Costa Rican marine research

under inquiry.

12 Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075 Vol. 73(S1): e64155, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado Mar. 03, 2025)

For instance, some projects funded by Horizon

Europe’s call, such as the current SEADITO

(Social-ecological analysis and models for the

digital twin ocean) project, are an example of

initiatives that involve case studies from diverse

geographies and contexts, including the Baltic

Sea, the North Sea and the Mediterranean,

and that engage diverse actors from academia

and civil society in the co-design of decision

support tools (European Union. HORIZON-

MISS-2023-OCEAN-01, 2024). Monitoring

the development, outcomes and funding of

such projects provides valuable information

for potential similar efforts in Costa Rica and

other contexts in the Global South. Provided

the funds are allocated to culturally appropri-

ate projects and bolster existing local initiatives

rather than imposing external agendas (Aguilar

González, 2024).

As in other coastal areas of the Global

South (Baumann et al., 2023), most of the lit-

erature reviewed still places marine research

in Costa Rica in the phase of preparation

for change, meaning that the system is going

through crises, shocks and pressures that are

driving innovation and new governance mod-

els. Thirty-two percent of the papers address

these changes and a minority of the studies

(twelve percent), suggest an early stabilization

phase, where alternative governance struc-

tures, like marine areas for responsible fishing

(AMPRs) are solidifying. AMPRs are legally

constituted since 1999 and seek to use fishery

resources responsibly, managed from the com-

munities with a synergy between INCOPESCA

as the governing body, academia and commu-

nity organizations. Although there is still room

for improvement to overcome the limitations

towards collective action (Carrillo et al., 2019),

by 2022 twelve AMPRs were distributed in

the Gulf of Nicoya, Golfo Dulce and northern

Caribbean, totaling more than 1 500 km2 of co-

managed areas (Ulate-Garita, 2022).

In the current literature review, research

focusing on the past and present state of coastal

and marine systems prevails. The results high-

light the necessity to move beyond descriptive

research towards future-oriented studies that

allow for envisioning desirable and more sus-

tainable futures, and a diversity of approaches

focused on issues of equity and justice. For

example, scenario planning, adaptive gover-

nance frameworks, and participatory visioning

exercises with communities and policymakers

are suggested for future methods. In Costa Rica,

a budget-constrained Global South country,

the prioritization of research topics is likely to

reflect these limitations. Hence, transformative

Fig. 9. Steps of transformative change in Costa Rican marine transdisciplinary research under study. Adapted from

(Baumann et al., 2023; Wiek & Lang, 2016).

Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075, Vol. 73(S1): e64155, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado Mar. 03, 2025)

changes in marine research will also require

reforming funding models for transdisciplinar-

ity and transformation.

The most common sustainability topics

covered in the publications evaluated include

social and ecological elements of coastal man-

agement, small-scale fisheries, marine conser-

vation, and local communities. They contain

powerful subjects with the potential to prompt

transformations, such as ecosystem-based

management, biodiversity-preserving interven-

tions, and co-management approaches. The

transformative potential will mainly reside in

the collaborative development of acceptable

and realistic solutions that are relevant to local

needs and cultural preferences (Herrón et al.,

2020). Sustainable tourism is among the devel-

opment alternatives presented in the review. To

investigate this and other possibilities, fishers,

national authorities, academia and other stake-

holders would need to combine their efforts

and financial resources to conduct innovative

research and test desirable outcomes.

The reviewed articles reflect some social

transformations that have been taking place, for

example, favorable conditions for restoration

of coral ecosystems in the Golfo Dulce (Vil-

lalobos-Cubero et al., 2023) and the voluntary

creation of Responsible Marine Fishing Areas

(Carrillo et al., 2019). This raises the impor-

tance of investigating the role of groups typi-

cally marginalized from decision-making, as

agents to actively transform the economy from

the margins (Ravera et al., 2016). To generate

marine research with social impact, it is neces-

sary to advance in the development of diverse

methods and safe enough spaces (Pereira et al.,

2020) that openly address power dynamics and

equity dimensions, as well as facilitate debate

on differences in preferences between actors

(Chuenpagdee & Jentoft, 2018).

Addressing complex marine challenges

requires innovative research approaches that

transcend traditional disciplinary boundaries.

Transdisciplinary and transformative marine

research offers a way forward in Costa Rica

by integrating diverse perspectives and foster-

ing collaboration. We see the co-production

of knowledge as a leverage point or a key area

for systemic change. Creating safe spaces for

transformation can also ensure that histori-

cally marginalized voices are included in deci-

sion-making processes. Strengthening equity

and justice in research practices, along with

improving funding mechanisms, is essential

to sustaining meaningful long-term impact.

The following section explores these elements:

leverage points, knowledge co-production,

safe spaces, and funding, as essential strategies

to promote transformative transdisciplinary

marine research.

Ways forward for transformative trans-

disciplinary marine research in Costa Rica:

Following the current analysis of transforma-

tive marine research, we highlight the next key

themes as ways forward: (1) adopting a leverage

points perspective, i.e. prioritizing interven-

tions that can lead to significant positive chang-

es in social-ecological systems, (2) focusing on

knowledge co-production or collaborative inte-

gration of expertise from scientists, policymak-

ers, industry and local stakeholders, (3) creating

safe spaces and methods for transformation,

equity, and justice, i.e. intentionally design-

ing environments that allow diverse actors to

meaningfully participate in shaping the future,

especially groups conventionally marginalized

in decision-making, and (4) enhancing funding

for transdisciplinary research, with long-term,

adaptable budgets that enable adaptive learn-

ing, are locally appropriate and support cross-

disciplinary expertise. We elaborate on these

four themes below.

Leverage points for transformative research:

In the context of transdisciplinary marine

research, leverage points (LP) can be defined as

strategic interventions in a complex social-eco-

logical system where relatively small changes

may lead to significant transformations in the

entire system (Meadows, 2015). LP can be clas-

sified into four categories based on the system

features they address: (1) intent, (2) design,

(3) parameters and (4) feedbacks (Abson et

al., 2017) (Table 2). Adjustments in research

approaches, governance structures, funding

14 Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075 Vol. 73(S1): e64155, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado Mar. 03, 2025)

mechanisms, and stakeholder engagement can

activate these systemic changes.

Parameters are the measurable charac-

teristics of the system (e.g., numbers, sizes)

(Table 2), and an example of modifying param-

eters within the existing coastal marine system

in Costa Rica will be to expand research efforts

and increase funding to underrepresented

regions such as the Caribbean or South Pacific.

System feedback refers to positive and

negative interactions within the system

(Table 2), and an example of adjusting feedback

in research will be to develop models to help

predict natural systems responses and from

society. Future scenarios, for example, can help

visualize potential changes in ecosystems and

trigger societal responses necessary for adapta-

tion and resilience (Riechers et al., 2021b).

For some authors such as Westley et al.,

2011, to move towards more sustainable states,

research must fundamentally alter the way

society sees and thinks about nature (system

intent), as well as rethink the system’s goals

and rules (system design). Research capable of

altering system design will focus on changing

the relationships between actors, institutions,

and knowledge systems, and an example for

Costa Rica will be to move from one-way

consultations to true co-production of knowl-

edge. Adjusting system design can also trigger

changes in social structures that impact rules,

norms, and collective human behaviors.

Changes in system intent require interven-

tions that reshape mindsets and affect the way

the system behaves, generating emergent goals

that result in a paradigm shift (Meadows, 2015).

For instance, moving from extractive research

models that impose external agendas and

extract information, to cooperative research

approaches between different stakeholders.

Marine research that intervenes SES intent

and design may have greater potential to gen-

erate transformative changes (Abson et al.,

2017), although it may also be more difficult to

alter and are generally less investigated themes

(Fischer & Riechers, 2019). For example,

although less frequent in the reviewed articles,

at the intent level, stakeholder perceptions are

key processes as people make decisions based

on their own perspectives and expectations of

what is possible (e.g., Mejías-Balsalobre et al.,

2021; Partelow et al., 2021; Sánchez-Jiménez

et al., 2014; Villalobos-Cubero et al., 2023).

The same is true for other less frequent topics

Table 2

Twelve leverage points (Meadows, 2015) classified into four system characteristics according to the leverage for systemic

change (Abson et al., 2017; Riechers et al., 2021a).

Leverage points System Characteristics

12. Constants, parameters, numbers

11. The size of buffers and other stabilizing stocks, relative to their flows

10. Structure of material stocks and flows

4. Parameters: measurable system

features

9. Length of delays, relative to the rate of system changes

8. Strength of negative feedback loops, relative to the effect they are trying to

correct against

7. Gain around driving positive feedback loops

3. Feedbacks: interaction within the

system

6. Structure of information flow, access to information; type and diversity of

information (e.g., cultural or biological); biodiversity to improve genetic

information diversity

5. Rules of the system

4. Power to add, change, evolve, or self-organize system structure

2. Design: systemic structures;

institutional arrangements;

sanctions, controls, incentives;

co-management schemes

3. Goals of the system

2. Mindset out of which the system arises (goals, structure, rules)

1. Power to transcend paradigms

1. Intent: long-term trajectory

of system behavior. Values,

worldviews, beliefs

Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075, Vol. 73(S1): e64155, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado Mar. 03, 2025)

included in the review, such as processes of col-

lective action, compliance, and understanding/

information exchange, at the design level.

In summary, for marine research in Costa

Rica to be more oriented in the near future

towards social-ecological action, some deep

leverage points will need to be addressed,

including: (1) rethinking how participatory

research approaches can help guide man-

agement to solve social problems (Pereira et

al., 2020); (2) co-production of knowledge

and social learning to reconnect and reorient

human behavior with nature, resilience, and the

capacity of ecosystems to sustain life (Martín-

López & Montes, 2015); and (3) restructure

institutions by improving the way in which

diverse actors can be incorporated into research

and management (Abson et al., 2017; Lindkvist

et al., 2020).

Co-production of knowledge: the goal of

transdisciplinary research: While in co-produc-

tion non-academic actors and researchers work

together to design the process and the results of

a given project, establishing two-way commu-

nication and diverse integration of knowledge

(Krütli et al., 2010), co-production represents

the least frequent form of participation in the

articles analyzed for the Costa Rica case study.

This unidirectional flow of information falls

into the category of information and consulta-

tion, which has the lowest level of stakeholder

participation and does not leave many possi-

bilities for knowledge co-creation (Krütli et al.,

2010). In the context of these articles, informa-

tion is mainly transferred in one direction from

the public to academia through consultation.

A weak level of participation can diminish the

positive effects of transdisciplinary research

(Krütli et al., 2010).

Higher levels of participation are desirable,

as the greater the interaction there is between

actors, the greater the potential for social impact

(Jahn et al., 2022). Since people are more open

to the opinions of others in their immedi-

ate social circles, the transfer of information

and other resources through shared networks

can lead to transformative changes (Toomey,

2023). Therefore, social learning environments

are needed where people can listen carefully

and think together to make sound decisions

(Toomey, 2023). These spaces should be rich in

opinions, experiences, and regular encounters

(Pereira et al., 2020) For example, deliberative

research techniques can allow participants to

reflect on, discuss their views and help integrate

diverse knowledge systems (Kenter et al., 2016;

Partelow et al., 2019).

Research approaches in the Gulf of Nicoya

that combine deliberation and scientific evi-

dence as a method of social learning have

proven to influence fishers’ perceptions of the

ease of supporting sustainability measures

(Sánchez-Jiménez et al., 2021). A growing body

of research suggests that social norms influence

how often communities engage in environ-

mental behaviors; on this point, one large-scale

experiment (Fujitani et al., 2017) found that

providing members of fishing associations with

hands-on learning spaces, rather than sim-

ply lecturing them with scientific information,

improved people’s knowledge retention, even

eight months after the research ended; partici-

pants’ core beliefs, personal norms and behav-

ioral intentions also changed. In research off

the coast of Scotland, those who perceived their

social connections as a favoring contribution

to marine conservation also expressed support

for marine protection in a group deliberation

(Kenter, 2016).

Although important, conventional meth-

ods of scientific communication (Kadykalo et

al., 2021), such as speaking directly to policy

makers, using social media for broader audi-

ences and writing policy briefs, often have

limited impact in bringing about transforma-

tive changes in policy and behavior (Oliver &

Cairney, 2019). The reason is that when report-

ing research findings, it is common to overlook

what drives people to act and how they process

information. Drawing from cognitive science

(Toomey, 2023) it is now known that focusing

on a dual exchange of local and scientific knowl-

edge (co-production), is more likely to lead to

lasting behavioral change. Empowerment is the

highest level of participation, granting actors of

16 Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075 Vol. 73(S1): e64155, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado Mar. 03, 2025)

sovereignty in decision-making and agency to

act (Krütli et al., 2010).

Safe spaces and methods for transformation,

equity and justice: Marine and coastal actors

harbor a diversity of heterogeneous values, per-

ceptions, and preferences (Pascual et al., 2023).

Even within the same coastal community, there

are cultural and needs differences that are not

well represented in decision-making. Some

knowledge systems, such as those of women,

youth, and older people in coastal commu-

nities, have long been ignored despite their

importance for marine management (Bennett

et al., 2022). In deliberative and collaborative

knowledge research approaches, considering

the current knowledge gap can help promote

more equitable decisions based on the best

available evidence (Bennett, 2022).

Is not uncommon that dominant discours-

es often benefit political elites to the detriment

of smaller stakeholders. Furthermore, gender,

race, and ethnicity, among other identity char-

acteristics, shape diverse outcomes in processes

of adapting to change (Wabnitz et al., 2021).

Given the long bequest of colonization in the

Global South (Pereira et al., 2020), deliber-

ately incorporating the multiple values, needs,

and interests of historically excluded people

into decision-making and research is required

(Vatn et al., 2024). Addressing marginalization

and structural injustices in marine research

can lead to transformative spaces. Traditional,

indigenous and local knowledge systems can

inform alternative solutions (to the status quo)

to understand how people interact with each

other and with nature in complex contexts

(Pereira et al., 2020).

Marine research can influence social inno-

vation, through democratic methods of dia-

logue in decision-making. But for this to be

a true force for institutional change and to

enhance the awareness, agency and action of

actors to address environmental change, the

design of the research must answer questions

such as, who benefits? Who pays for solutions

to climate change? What stories (and from

whom) would we like to hear about the future?

Are vulnerable groups, non-human life and

ocean ecosystems considered? Where are the

conversations taking place?

The limited participation of women in

the analyzed research suggests on the one

hand that some voices may remain underrepre-

sented in decision-making. On the other hand,

there is a need to institutionalize democratic

research approaches that foster a stronger local

governance structure and help integrate local

ecological and scientific knowledge. This is

particularly relevant in data-limited contexts,

where direct users of resources are also custo-

dians of rich ecological knowledge and could

provide essential information for management

(Sánchez-Jiménez et al., 2019). More transdis-

ciplinary research is necessary to democratize

the approach to finding solutions. As alterna-

tive empowering narratives spread, new norms

diffuse across scales and can be mobilized

into political agendas and centers of power

(Chapin et al., 2022) (e.g., politicians and busi-

ness leaders).

Improve the funding model of marine sci-

ence to be more transdisciplinary: As found

in other studies of the Global South (Bau-

mann et al., 2023), a lack of adequate funding

could explain the relatively low number of

published articles on transformative transdisci-

plinary research in Costa Rican coastal marine

ecosystems. While publication and funding

modalities remain focused on specific sciences,

transdisciplinary research, unlike disciplinary

research, requires medium-term (5–10 years)

and long-term (10–30 years) processes (Franke

et al., 2023), as they are iterative progressions

that require adjustments as conditions change.

Building trust between scientists and other

stakeholders also takes time and cannot be

achieved in a single visit or session. Similarly, it

is critical to mind the gap in the funding capaci-

ties between countries in the Global South and

the North (Mahajan et al., 2023).

To integrate inclusive research methods

into decision-making, investments in data

collection and analysis, community moni-

toring for management, and participatory

research approaches are needed; particularly

Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075, Vol. 73(S1): e64155, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado Mar. 03, 2025)

in data-scarce contexts. Concrete steps have

already been taken in the reviewed articles,

including the integration of multiple methodol-

ogies to interpret and analyze interdisciplinary,

quantitative and qualitative data, as well as the

promotion of collaboration between scientists

from different disciplines and countries in the

natural and social sciences and non-academic

sectors. The aspiration is for science to be more

than a knowledge producer of which society

is its recipient (Riechers et al., 2021b), but an

active agent within social-ecological systems

(Skubel et al., 2019), participating in and foster-

ing cross-sectoral collaboration.

A strategic action that supports the objec-

tives of the Ocean Decade is to ensure that

there is evidence-based management (Franke

et al., 2023), sensitive to the local, regional and

global context (Lindkvist et al., 2020), without

imposing agendas and strengthening local ini-

tiatives. From the Ocean Decade perspective

2020–2030, long-term research and funding are

critical to shaping how knowledge is currently

produced and used to address increasingly

frequent environmental and societal challenges

(Franke et al., 2023).

Future directions and final thought: A

look at the current state of marine and coast-

al ecosystems, along with future projections,

can help reduce some of the uncertainties

associated with decision-making in a complex

social-ecological system. Descriptive studies

on past and present state were the most com-

mon type of research in our sample, indicating

that more transformative research is required.

To actively facilitate innovation, prospective

or anticipatory research can help establish a

shared vision of the future (at the level of sys-

tem design and intent) and the development of

interventions that, as a result, contribute to the

intended purpose (Fischer & Riechers, 2019;

Riechers et al., 2021b).

The analysis of postgraduate theses on

integrated coastal management and sustainabil-

ity, as well as grey literature, is likely to produce

different results and enriched data, indicating

the need for more research on transdisciplinary

and transformative approaches, as well as the

training of more transdisciplinary personnel

in Costa Rica. Theses’ knowledge supplements

the data and understanding of peer-reviewed

literature for scientific-political processes and

applied research, and grey literature frequent-

ly offers future visions with transformational

potential (Yoshida et al., 2024). Notable efforts

of projects with community involvement and

education come from non-governmental orga-

nizations (NGOs) that were not reflected in this

literature review. It is recommended to include

this type of documentation in a future analysis.

Although there are challenges ahead in

terms of conventional methods of publishing

single disciplines, an absence of adequate fund-

ing, and even a still relatively small number of

human resources trained in transdisciplinarity,

TTDR is slowly advancing in Costa Rica, as in

other coastal regions in the Global South (Bau-

mann et al., 2023), and these challenges togeth-

er represent a significant opportunity for Costa

Rica. Transdisciplinary research allows experts

from other disciplines, government agencies,

and communities to collaborate nationally and

internationally on common visions for the

future. Such structured collaboration across

disciplines, cultures and contexts and its obsta-

cles are expected to be addressed and debated

during the upcoming global conference in Nice,

France, which Costa Rica will co-host.

Ethical statement: the authors declare that

they all agree with this publication and made

significant contributions; that there is no con-

flict of interest of any kind; and that we fol-

lowed all pertinent ethical and legal procedures

and requirements. All financial sources are fully

and clearly stated in the acknowledgments sec-

tion. A signed document has been filed in the

journal archives.

See supplementary material

a16v73s1-suppl1

18 Revista de Biología Tropical, ISSN: 2215-2075 Vol. 73(S1): e64155, enero-diciembre 2025 (Publicado Mar. 03, 2025)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We sincerely thank the reviewers and edi-

tors of this manuscript for their insightful com-

ments, which helped us refine and structure our

narrative more effectively. We are also grateful

to the Center for Research in Marine Sciences

and Limnology (CIMAR) for providing the

necessary support and resources that enabled

the preparation, completion and publication of

this study. Without CIMAR’s invaluable assis-

tance, this work would not have been possible.

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