Multi-temporal coral reef structure and health of Tayrona National Natural Park, Colombian Caribbean
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.15517/6f0vgr90Keywords:
coral cover, coral health, Santa Marta, Colombian CaribbeanAbstract
Introduction: Coral reefs are biodiversity-rich ecosystems increasingly threatened by disease and, in particular, mass bleaching events driven by elevated sea-surface temperatures. Objectives: To assess spatio-temporal variation in reef structure and coral health across three reef zones within Tayrona National Natural Park (TNNP) from 1998 to 2023. Methods: Coral cover (CC), algal cover (AC), and coral health (CH: bleaching and diseases) were quantified following the protocols of the Colombian Coral Reef Monitoring System. Results: In Gayraca, mean CC was 37.05 %, dominated by massive corals with a declining trend. Mean AC was 43 %, and turf algae increased significantly through time. Black band disease and white plague were recorded with < 2 % incidence. In Chengue, mean CC was 30 % (massive corals), with disease incidence around 2 %, and the mean AC was 44 %. In Granate, mean CC was 28.2 %, largely massive corals with a downward trend, while mean AC was 47 %, dominated by turf algae with an increasing trend. Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease (SCTLD) was not detected. Conclusions: Bleaching increased sharply in 2023, reaching unprecedented levels. Across bays, we observed a tendency toward lower CC and higher AC in areas closer to human populations. Although disease prevalence across years was high, annual disease incidence remained low and did not track thermal stress, suggesting comparatively high biological robustness of local coral populations.
Downloads
References
Acero-P., A., Bustos-Montes, D., Pabón-Quintero, P., Polo-Silva, C. J., & Sanjuan-Muñoz, A. (2019). Feeding habits of Pterois volitans: A real threat to Caribbean coral reef biodiversity. In C. Makowski & C. Finkl (Eds.), Impacts of invasive species on coastal environments (pp. 269–314). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91382-7_8
Acevedo, R., Morelock, J., & Olivieri, R. A. (1989). Modification of coral reef zonation by terrigenous sediment stress. Palaios, 4, 92–100. https://doi.org/10.2307/3514736
Acosta-Chaparro, A. F., Vanegas, J., Pizarro, V., & Rivera-Sosa, A. (2025). Colombia. In J. Wicquart, L. Mathon, A. Petit, A. Rivera-Sosa, & M. McField (Eds.), Status and trends of Caribbean coral reefs: 1970–2024 (pp. 133–139). Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) & International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI). https://doi.org/10.59387/BDHF9180
Alvarado-Chacón, E., Gómez-Lemos, L. A., Sierra-Sabalza, N. P., Hernández-Chamorro, A. M., Lozano-Peña, J. P., Valcárcel-Castellanos, C. A., Pizarro, V., García-Urueña, R., Zárate-Arévalo, J. C., & Rojas, J. A. (2020). Early life history of the Caribbean coral Orbicella faveolata (Scleractinia: Merulinidae). Revista de Biología Tropical, 68(4), 1262–1274. https://doi.org/10.15517/rbt.v68i4.40805
Anthony, K. R. N., Marshall, P. A., Abdulla, A., Beeden, R., Bergh, C., Black, R., Day, J. C., Eakin, C. M., Hooidonk, P. V., Maynard, J. A., Rogers, C. S., Salm, R., Schuttenberg, J. Z., & West, J. M. (2015). Operationalizing resilience for adaptive coral reef management under global environmental change. Global Change Biology, 21(1), 48–61. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12700
Barott, K. L., Williams, G. J., Vermeij, M. J. A., Harris, J., Smith, J. E., Rohwer, F. L., & Sandin, S. A. (2012). Natural history of coral-algae competition across a gradient of human activity in the Line Islands. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 460, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps09874
Bayraktarov, E., Bastidas-Salamanca, M. L., & Wild, C. (2014b). The physical environment in coral reefs of the Tayrona National Natural Park (Colombian Caribbean) in response to seasonal upwelling. Boletín de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras, 43(1), 137–157. https://doi.org/10.25268/bimc.invemar.2014.43.1.38
Bayraktarov, E., Pizarro, V., Eidens, C., Wilke, T., & Wild, C. (2013). Bleaching susceptibility and recovery of Colombian Caribbean corals in response to water current exposure and seasonal upwelling. PLoS ONE, 8(11), e80536. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0080536
Bayraktarov, E., Pizarro, V., & Wild, C. (2014a). Spatial and temporal variability of water quality in the coral reefs of Tayrona National Natural Park, Colombian Caribbean. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 186(6), 3641–3659. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-014-3647-3
Birkeland, C. (1997). Symbiosis, fisheries and economic development on coral reefs. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 12(9), 364–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(97)01099-9
Birrell, C. L., McCook, L. J., Willis, B. L., & Harrington, L. (2005). Effects of algal turfs and sediment on coral settlement. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 51(1–4), 408–414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2004.10.022
Bruno, J. F., Selig, E. R., Casey, K. S., Page, C. A., Miller, B. L., Selig, C. P., Little, R., & Aronson, R. B. (2007). Thermal stress and coral cover as drivers of coral disease outbreaks. PLoS Biology, 5(6), e124. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0050124
Buddemeier, R. W., Kleypas, J. A., & Aronson, R. B. (2004). Coral reefs and global climate change: Potential contributions of climate change to stress on coral reefs ecosystems. Pew Center on Global Climate Change.
Burke, S., Pottier, P., Lagisz, M., Macartney, E. L., Ainsworth, T., Drobniak, S. M., & Nakagawa, S. (2023). The impact of rising temperatures on the prevalence of coral diseases and its predictability: A global meta-analysis. Ecology Letters, 26(8), 1466–1481. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.14266
Caballero, H., Chevalier, P., Varona, G., Cárdenas, A., Pastor, L., Pérez Hernández, A., & García, Y. (2004). Componentes más comunes de la fauna del arrecife de coral de la costa oriental de Bahía de Cochinos, Cuba: Corales, esponjas, gorgonáceos y peces. Revista de Investigaciones Marinas, 25, 37–44.
Cantin, N., James, N., & Stella, J. (2024). Aerial surveys of the 2024 mass coral bleaching event on the Great Barrier Reef. Australian Institute of Marine Science. https://www.aims.gov.au/information-centre/news-and-stories/aerial-surveys-reveal-mass-coral-bleaching-event-unfolding-great-barrier-reef
CARICOMP. (1994). Manual de métodos nivel 1: Manual de métodos para el mapeo y monitoreo de parámetros físicos y biológicos en la zona costera del Caribe. Data Management Center & University of the West Indies.
Cubillos-Romero, S. C. (2024). Tasa de crecimiento y supervivencia de las especies Siderastrea siderea y Porites porites en dos diferentes tipos de guarderías de coral en Isla Fuerte, Bolívar (Colombia) [Undergraduate thesis, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Colombia]. Javeriana Institutional Repository. https://repository.javeriana.edu.co/handle/10554/68172
De Bakker, D. M., van Duyl, F. C., Bak, R. P., Maggi, E., & Meesters, E. H. (2017). 40 Years of data reveal dramatic changes in abundance and composition of benthic communities (corals, underlying algae and sponges) on Curaçao and Bonaire. Frontiers in Marine Science, 4, 398. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2017.00398
Díaz, J. M., Barrios, L. M., Cendales, M. H., Garzón-Ferreira, J., Geister, J., López-Victoria, M., Ospina, G. H., Parra-Velandia, F., Pinzón, J., Vargas-Angel, B., Zapata, F., & Zea, S. (2000). Áreas coralinas de Colombia. Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras (INVEMAR).
Duarte, L., Bastidas, M. A., García-Hoyos, L. M., Santis, C. R., & Saderne, V. (2024). Dynamics and drivers of the carbonate system: Response to terrestrial runoff and upwelling along the Northeastern Colombian Caribbean coast. Frontiers in Marine Science, 11, 1305542. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2024.1305542
Erhardt, H., & Werding, B. (1975). Los corales (Anthozoa e Hidrozoa) de la Bahía de Santa Marta. Boletín Museo del Mar, 7, 3–50.
Franco-Herrera, A. (2005). Oceanografía de la Ensenada de Gaira. El Rodadero, más que un centro turístico en el Caribe colombiano. Servigraphics Ltda.
García, A., Croquer, A., & Pauls, S. M. (2003). Estado actual de las enfermedades y otros signos de deterioro coralino en siete arrecifes del Parque Nacional Archipiélago de Los Roques, Venezuela. Revista de Biología Tropical, 51(4), 173–180.
García-Urueña, R., & Garzón-Machado, M. A. (2020). Current status of Acropora palmata and Acropora cervicornis in the Colombian Caribbean: Demography, coral cover and condition assessment. Hydrobiologia, 847, 2141–2153. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-020-04238-6
Garzón-Ferreira, J. (1998). Bahía de Chengue, Parque Natural Tayrona, Colombia. In B. Kjerfve (Ed.), CARICOMP: Caribbean coral reef, seagrass and mangrove sites (pp. 115–125). UNESCO.
Garzón-Ferreira, J. (1999). SIMAC: A new program to monitor coral reef condition in Colombia. Reef Encounter, 25, 14–15.
Garzón-Ferreira, J., & Cano, M. (1991). Tipos, distribución, extensión y estado de conservación de los ecosistemas marinos del Parque Nacional Natural Tayrona. FEN Colombia.
Garzón-Ferreira, J., & Díaz, J. M. (2003). The Caribbean coral reefs of Colombia. In J. Cortés (Ed.), Latin American coral reefs (pp. 275–301). Elsevier Science. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-044451388-5/50013-8
Garzón-Ferreira, J., Reyes-Nivia, M. C., & Rodríguez-Ramírez, A. (2002). Manual de métodos del SIMAC: Sistema Nacional de Monitoreo de Arrecifes Coralinos en Colombia. INVEMAR.
Gil-Agudelo, D. L., Garzón-Ferreira, J., Rodríguez-Ramírez, A., Reyes-Nivia, M. C., Navas-Camacho, R., Venera-Pontón, D. E., Díaz-Pulido, G., & Sánchez, J. A. (2005). Estado de los arrecifes coralinos en Colombia. In J. C. Narváez (Ed.), Informe del estado de los ambientes marinos y costeros de Colombia: 2005. INVEMAR.
Gil-Agudelo, D. L., Navas-Camacho, R., Rodríguez-Ramírez, A., Reyes-Nivia, M. C., Bejarano-Chavarro, S., Garzón-Ferreira, J., & Smith, G. W. (2009). Enfermedades coralinas y su investigación en los arrecifes colombianos. Boletín de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras, 38(2), 189–224. https://doi.org/10.25268/bimc.invemar.2009.38.2.178
Gómez-Cubillos, C., Gavio, B., & Zea, S. (2020). Estructura de la comunidad de céspedes algales en interacciones con corales masivos en arrecifes del Parque Nacional Natural Tayrona, Caribe colombiano. Boletín de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras, 49(1), 45–72. https://doi.org/10.25268/bimc.invemar.2020.49.1.786
Gómez-Cubillos, C., Sanjuan-Muñoz, A., & Zea, S. (2019). Interacciones de corales masivos con céspedes algales y otros organismos en arrecifes del Parque Nacional Natural Tayrona. Boletín de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras, 48(2), 143–171. https://doi.org/10.25268/bimc.invemar.2019.48.2.770
Gómez-Cubillos, M. C., Bastidas, C., & Cantera, J. R. (2015). Benthic communities and sedimentation in the Tayrona National Natural Park, Colombian Caribbean. Boletín de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras, 44(2), 227–248. https://doi.org/10.25268/bimc.invemar.2015.44.2.22
González-Barrios, F. J., Estrada-Saldívar, N., Pérez-Cervantes, E., Secaira-Fajardo, F., & Álvarez-Filip, L. (2023). Legacy effects of anthropogenic disturbances modulate dynamics in the world's coral reefs. Global Change Biology, 29(12), 3285–3303. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16686
González-Gaviria, F. T., & García-Urueña, R. (2011). Estado actual de las poblaciones del erizo negro Diadema antillarum Philippi (Echinoidea: Diadematidae) en el Parque Nacional Natural Tayrona y playa Blanca, Santa Marta, Caribe colombiano. Boletín de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras, 40(2), 401–417.
Gorgula, S. K., & Connell, S. D. (2004). Expansive covers of turf-forming algae on human-dominated coast: The relative effects of increasing nutrient and sediment loads. Marine Biology, 145(3), 613–619. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-004-1335-5
Hammer, Ø., Harper, D. A. T., & Ryan, P. D. (2001). PAST: Paleontological Statistics software package for education and data analysis (Version 4.03) [Computer software]. http://www.nhm.uio.no/norlex/past
Harris, J. L. (2015). The ecology of turf algae on coral reefs [Doctoral dissertation, University of California]. UC Digital Assets.
Hawkins, J. P., & Roberts, C. M. (1997). Estimating the carrying capacity of coral reefs for scuba diving. Proceedings of the 8th International Coral Reef Symposium, 2, 1923–1926.
Hughes, T. P., Barnes, M. L., Bellwood, D. R., Cinner, J. E., Cumming, G. S., Jackson, J. B., Kleypas, J., Le Boldick, I. A., Lough, J. M., Morrison, T. H., Palumbi, S. R., Pandolfi, J. M., Schläppy, M. L., Tueros, B. N., & Graham, N. A. (2017). Coral reefs in the Anthropocene. Nature, 546(7656), 82–90. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature22901
Hughes, T. P., & Connell, J. H. (1999). Multiple stressors on coral reefs: A long-term perspective. Limnology and Oceanography, 44(3), 932–940. https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.1999.44.3_part_2.0932
Invemar. (2024). Informe del estado de los ambientes y recursos marinos y costeros en Colombia, 2023. Serie de Publicaciones Periódicas No. 3.
Invemar. (2025). Operación estadística indicador de condición tendencia de áreas coralinas de la plataforma continental del Caribe y Pacífico colombianos – OE ICTac. https://ictac-invemar.opendata.arcgis.com/
Invemar-Minambiente. (2020). Atlas de áreas coralinas de Colombia. https://areas-coralinas-de-colombia-invemar.hub.arcgis.com
Kramer, P. A. (2003). Synthesis of coral reef health indicators for the Western Atlantic: Results of the AGRRA Program (1997-2000). Atoll Research Bulletin, 496, 1–57. https://doi.org/10.5479/si.00775630.496-3.1
Leal-Cancelado, L. M., Maldonado Morales, L. F., & Franco-Herrera, A. (2003). Evaluación del estado de salud de los corales presentes en algunos sitios de buceo del Parque Nacional Natural Tayrona, Caribe Colombiano [Undergraduate thesis, Universidad Jorge Tadeo Lozano]. Utadeo Institutional Repository. https://expedicionbiota.utadeo.edu.co/handle/20.500.12071/1628
Levitan, D. R., Best, R. M., & Edmunds, P. J. (2023). Sea urchin mass mortalities 40 yr apart further threaten Caribbean coral reefs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 120(10), e2218901120. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2218901120
Lucas, M. Q., Collazo Roman, D. L., Mercado, M. A., Fain, E. J., Toledo-Rodríguez, D. A., & Weil, E. (2024). Stony coral tissue loss disease (SCTLD) induced mass mortality at Arecibo, Puerto Rico. Marine Biodiversity, 54, 10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12526-023-01393-6
Mann, H. B. (1945). Non-parametric tests against trend. Econometrica, 13(3), 245–259. https://doi.org/10.2307/1907187
Márquez, J. C., & Díaz, J. M. (2005). Interacciones entre corales y macroalgas: Dependencia de las especies involucradas. Boletín de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras, 34, 227–242.
Martínez, S., & Acosta, A. (1993). Comunidades coralinas del área de Santa Marta (Caribe colombiano). Anales del Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas de Punta de Betín, 22, 99–116. https://doi.org/10.25268/bimc.invemar.1993.22.0.407
Martínez, S., & Acosta, A. (2004). Efectos de la sedimentación sobre la distribución de corales hermatípicos en el área de Santa Marta, Caribe colombiano. Boletín de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras, 33, 181–200. https://doi.org/10.25268/bimc.invemar.2004.33.0.251
Martínez, S., & Acosta, A. (2005). Cambio temporal en la estructura de la comunidad coralina del área de Santa Marta - Parque Nacional Natural Tayrona (Caribe Colombiano). Boletín de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras, 34, 161–191. https://doi.org/10.25268/bimc.invemar.2005.34.0.239
McClanahan, T., Polunin, N., & Done, T. (2002). Ecological states and resilience of the coral reefs. Conservation Ecology, 6(2), 18. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-00461-060218
McCook, L., Jompa, J., & Diaz-Pulido, G. (2001). Competition between corals and algae on coral reefs: A review of evidence and mechanisms. Coral Reefs, 19(4), 400–417. https://doi.org/10.1007/s003380000129
McField, M., Soto, M., Craig, N., Giro, A., Drysdale, I., Guerrero, C., Rueda, M., Kramer, P., Canty, S., & Muñiz, I. (2024). Reporte de la salud ecológica del Arrecife Mesoamericano. Healthy Reefs Initiative. https://www.healthyreefs.org/es/healthy-reefs-data/report-cards
Mejía-Niño, N., & Garzón-Ferreira, J. (2003). Dinámica de las interacciones alga-coral en dos bahías de la región de Santa Marta (Caribe colombiano) con distinto grado de influencia antropogénica. Boletín de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras, 32(1), 243–261. https://doi.org/10.25268/bimc.invemar.2003.32.0.269
Miller, M. W., Weil, E., & Szmant, A. M. (2000). Coral recruitment and juvenile mortality as structuring factors for reef benthic communities in Biscayne National Park, USA. Coral Reefs, 19, 115–123. https://doi.org/10.1007/s003380000079
Navas-Camacho, R., Gil-Agudelo, D. L., Rodríguez-Ramírez, A., Reyes-Nivia, M. C., & Garzón-Ferreira, J. (2010). Coral diseases and bleaching on Colombian Caribbean coral reefs. Revista de Biología Tropical, 58(1), 95–106. https://doi.org/10.15517/rbt.v58i1.20026
NOAA. (2024). NOAA confirms 4th global coral bleaching event. https://www.noaa.gov/news-release/noaa-confirms-4th-global-coral-bleaching-event
Reimer, J. D., Peixoto, R. S., Davies, S. W., Traylor-Knowles, N., Short, M. L., Cabral-Tena, R. A., Burt, J. A., Pessoa, I., Banaszak, A. T., Winters, R. S., Moore, T., Schoepf, V., Kaullysing, D., Calderon-Aguilera, L. E., Wörheide, G., Harding, S., Munbodhe, V., Mayfield, A., Ainsworth, T., ... Voolstra, C. R. (2024). The fourth global coral bleaching event: Where do we go from here? Coral Reefs, 43, 1121–1125. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-024-02504-w
Restrepo, J. D., & Alvarado, E. M. (2011). Assessing major environmental issues in the Caribbean and Pacific coasts of Colombia, South America: An overview of fluvial fluxes, coral reef degradation, and mangrove ecosystems impacted by river diversion. In E. Wolansky & D. McLusky (Eds.), Treatise on estuarine and coastal science (pp. 289–314). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374711-2.01117-7
Restrepo, J. D., & Kjerfve, B. (2004). The Pacific and Caribbean rivers of Colombia: Water discharge, sediment transport and dissolved loads. In L. D. Lacerda, R. E. Santelli, E. K. Duursma, & J. J. Abrao (Eds.), Environmental geochemistry in tropical and subtropical environments (pp. 169–187). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-07060-4_14
Reyna-Fabián, M., Espinoza, A., Seingier, G., Ortiz-Lozano, L., & Espejel, I. (2018). De la evaluación ecológica a la socio-ecológica: La vulnerabilidad de los arrecifes de coral ante los factores de estrés asociados al cambio climático. Sociedad y Ambiente, 17, 59–92. https://doi.org/10.21640/ns10.20ab
Rodríguez-Ramírez, A., Reyes-Nivia, M. C., Navas-Camacho, R., Bejarano, S., Garzón-Ferreira, J., & Zapata, F. (2006). Status of the coral reefs of Colombia in 2003. Proceedings of the 10th International Coral Reef Symposium, 1, 976–981.
Rodríguez-Ramírez, A., Reyes-Nivia, M. C., Zea, S., Navas-Camacho, R., Garzón-Ferreira, J., Bejarano, S., & Orozco, C. (2010). Recent dynamics and condition of coral reefs in the Colombian Caribbean. Revista de Biología Tropical, 58(1), 107–131. https://doi.org/10.15517/rbt.v58i1.20027
Rogers, C. S., & Miller, J. (2006). Permanent ‘phase shifts’ or reversible declines in coral cover? Lack of recovery of two coral reefs in St. John, US Virgin Islands. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 306, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps306103
Romero-Rodríguez, D. A., Bernal, G., & Zea, S. (2014). Variables ambientales durante blanqueamiento coralino en el Caribe colombiano. Revista de la Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, 38(149), 347–355. https://doi.org/10.18257/raccefyn.49
Secaira-Fajardo, F., Reguero, B. R., & Acevedo Ramírez, C. A. (2017). The importance of reefs and dunes in coastal protection in the Mexican Caribbean – Document summary (Technical Series: The role of natural systems in coastal dynamics in the Mexican Caribbean). The Nature Conservancy.
Selman, M., Greenhalgh, S., Diaz, R., & Sugg, Z. (2008). Eutrophication and hypoxia in coastal areas: A global assessment of the state of knowledge. World Resources Institute.
Sully, S., Hodgson, G., & van Woesik, R. (2019). Present and future hotspots of coral reef bleaching. Scientific Reports, 9(1), 1262. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-36391-y
Sutherland, K. P., Porter, J. W., & Torres, C. (2004). Disease and immunity in Caribbean and Indo-Pacific zooxanthellate corals. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 266, 273–302. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps266273
Vega-Sequeda, J., Rodríguez-Ramírez, A., Reyes-Nivia, M. C., & Navas-Camacho, R. (2008). Formaciones coralinas del área de Santa Marta: Estado y patrones de distribución espacial de la comunidad bentónica. Boletín de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras, 37(2), 87–105. https://doi.org/10.25268/bimc.invemar.2008.37.2.193
Weil, E., Irikawa, A., Casareto, B., & Suzuki, Y. (2012). Extended geographic distribution of several Indo-Pacific coral reef diseases. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 98(2), 163–170. https://doi.org/10.3354/dao02433
Wells, S., & Hanna, N. (1992). The Greenpeace book of coral reefs. Sterling Publishing Co.
West, J. M., & Salm, R. V. (2003). Resistance and resilience to coral bleaching: Implications for coral reef conservation and management. Conservation Biology, 17(4), 956–967. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2003.02055.x
Wicquart, J., Mathon, L., Petit, A., Rivera-Sosa, A., & McField, M. (2025). Status and trends of Caribbean coral reefs: 1970–2024. Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) & International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI). https://doi.org/10.59387/BDHF9180
Wiedenmann, J., D’Angelo, C., Smith, E. G., Hunt, A. N., Legiret, F. E., Postle, A. D., & Achterberg, E. P. (2013). Nutrient enrichment can increase the susceptibility of reef corals to bleaching. Nature Climate Change, 3(2), 160–164. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1661
Wilkinson, C. (2000). Status of coral reefs of the world: 2000. Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS).
Wilkinson, C. (2008). Status of coral reefs of the world: 2008. Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN).
Zapata, F. A., & Vargas-Ángel, B. (2003). Corals and coral reefs of the Pacific coast of Colombia. In J. Cortés (Ed.), Latin American coral reefs (pp. 419–447). Elsevier Science. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-044451388-5/50019-9
Zea, S. (1993). Cover of sponges and other sessile organisms in rocky and coral reef habitats of Santa Marta, Colombian Caribbean Sea. Caribbean Journal of Science, 29(1–2), 75–88.
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Revista de Biología Tropical
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License (CC BY 4.0)
Attribution (BY) • (BY) You must attribute the work in the manner specified by the author or licensor (but not in any way that suggests that they endorse you or your use of the work).
