DREAMING OF REFORM: UNIVERSITY INTELLECTUALS DURING THE LEMUS REGIME AND THE CIVIC-MILITARY JUNTA IN EL SALVADOR (1960-1961)
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.15517/w3msp950Palabras clave:
totalitarismo, exiliado, comunismo, política, sistema económicoResumen
Lieutenant-Colonel José María Lemus, a protégé of President Oscar Osorio (1950-1956), rose to power in 1956. Lemus is often remembered as an authoritarian ruler, but at the outset of his presidency he allowed the return of exiles and abolished the “Law in Defense of Democratic and Constitutional Order,” sanctioned during Osorio’s anti-communist crackdown in 1952. Lemus governed El Salvador during a period of declining prosperity as coffee prices plunged in the international markets, forcing an economic restructuring which had particularly negative consequences for the poor. But more importantly, the changing political landscape in Latin America posed enormous challenges to Lemus, as opposition forces ousted Venezuelan dictator Marcos Pérez Jiménez in January 1958 and revolutionaries led by Fidel Castro took power in Cuba in January 1959. Political events in Venezuela and Cuba inspired a new wave of mobilization in El Salvador led by the recently formed Partido Revolucionario Abril y Mayo (PRAM) and Frente Nacional de Orientación Cívica (FNOC) which challenged Lemus’ authoritarian regime. While the local press followed step by step events in Cuba as reported by U.S. press agencies, Lemus and the Revolutionary Party of Democratic Unification (PRUD), the official party, showed a renewed determination to prevent the spread of “Cuban-inspired subversion” in El Salvador. To this end, Sidney Mazzini, a representative of the PRUD at the National Assembly envisioned the formation of what he termed a “sanitary cordon” around Cuba.
Descargas
Referencias
U.S. National Archives
Declassified documents of the State Department- Office of Central American and Panamanian Affairs (1958-1961)
“State Visit by Salvadoran President Lemus March 10-20 1959, Position Paper Communist Activities in El Salvador.” ed. State Department, 2: Declassified Documents of the Office of Central American and Panamanian Affairs U.S. National Archives, 1959.
“Memorandum of Conversation - Subject: Communist Influence in Medical School in El Salvador- Participants: Dr. Jacob Sacks, University of Arkansas, Mrs. Katherine W. Bracken, Director, Office of Central American and Panamanian Affairs; Mr. Maxwell Chaplin, Office in Charge, Honduran Affairs.” ed. State Department: Declassified Documents of the Office of Central American and Panamanian Affairs, U.S. National Archives, December 27, 1960.
“From Mr. Mann to the Acting Secretary -Reply to Letter from Secretary Gates on Question of Recognition of New Government of El Salvador.” ed. State Department: Declassified Documents of the Office of Central American and Panamanian Affairs, U.S. National Archives, December 28, 1960.
“University of El Salvador Elections - the Weber Case Memorandum from Mr. Rubottom to C. Allan Stewart.” ed. State Department: Declassified Documents of the Office of Central American and Panamanian Affairs U.S. National Archives, March 4, 1959.
“Memorandum of Conversation- Participants: Thorsten V. Kalijarvi, American Ambassador, Serafino Romualdi, Inter American Representative of ORIT, Andrew McClellan, Latin American Representative of the International Federation of Food and Drink Workers, Bruce Green, Labor Advisor USOM, William B. Sowash, Labor Reporting Officer; Subject: Various Labor Matters.” ed. State Department: Declassified documents of the Office of Central American and Panamanian Affairs U.S. National Archives, March 23, 1960.
“Memorandum to the Acting Secretary from Mr. Mann - Subject: Recent Development in El Salvador.” ed. State Department: Declassified Documents of the Office of Central American and Panamanian Affairs, U.S. National Archives, November 5, 1960.
“Memorandum [Signed by] Ambassador Thorsten V. Kalijarvi.” ed. State Department: Declassified documents of the Office of Central American and Panamanian Affairs U.S. National Archives, November 6, 1960.
“Donald P. Downs Letter to Ambassador Thorsten Kalijarvi.” ed. State Department: Declassified documents of the Office of Central American and Panamanian Affairs U.S. National Archives, November 10, 1960.
“Thorsten V. Kalijarvi to the Secretary- Further Delay in U.S. Recognition of Junta Government of El Salvador.” ed. State Department: Declassified documents of the Office of Central American and Panamanian Affairs U.S. National Archives, November 11, 1960.
“Memorandum to the Secretary from Mr. Mann - Subject: Recognition of Junta Government in El Salvador.” ed. State Department: Declassified documents of the Office of Central American and Panamanian Affairs U.S. National Archives, November 13, 1960.
“Memorandum to the Secretary from Mr. Mann - Subject: Recognition of El Salvador.” ed. State Department: Declassified documents of the Office of Central American and Panamanian Affairs U.S. National Archives, November 15, 1960.
“Memorandum to the Secretary from Mr. Mann - Subject: Coup D’etat in El Salvador.” ed. State Department: Declassified Documents of the Office of Central American and Panamanian Affairs U.S. National Archives, October 31, 1960.
“Memorandum of Conversation between Monsignor Luis Chávez y González, Archbishop of San Salvador and Robert F. Delaney Public Affairs Officer, U.S. Embassy in El Salvador.” ed. State Department: Declassified Documents of Office of Central American and Panamanian Affairs, U.S. National Archives, September 12, 1960.
“Memorandum of Conversation, Participants: Roberto Dutriz, Business Manager, La Prensa Gráfica and Robert F. Delaney, Public Affairs Officer U.S. Embassy in El Salvador.” ed. State Department: Declassified Documents of the Office of Central American and Panamanian Affairs, U.S. National Archives, September 13, 1960.
“Memorandum of Conversation, Participants: H.E. President José María Lemus Ambassador Thorsten V. Kalijarvi.” ed. State Department: Declassified Documents Office of Central American and Panamanian Affairs, U.S. National Archives, September 16, 1960.
“Visit of President Lemus of El Salvador- Memo from Mr. Rubottom to Acting Assistant Secretary of State.” ed. State Department: Declassified documents of the Office of Central American and Panamanian Affairs U.S. National Archives, September 24 1958.
“Memorandum of Conversation - Participants: Ambassador Kalijarvi, Mr. Donald P. Downs, Dr. Kuri Dean of Medical School, Dr. Desola Assistant Dean, Dr. Byers.” ed. State Department: Declassified documents of the Office of Central American and Panamanian Affairs U.S. National Archives, September 29, 1959.
Birdsall, Blair. “Memo on the New Government in El Salvador Central America.” ed. Department of State. Washington D.C.: Declassified documents of the Office of Central American and Panamanian Affairs U.S. National Archives, November 11 1960.
Archives of the University of El Salvador
SUC. “Minutes of the Meeting of the Supreme University Council, August 29, 1960.” San Salvador: Archives of the University of El Salvador, 1960.
________. “Minutes of the Meeting of the Supreme University Council, October 17 1960.” Archives of the University of El Salvador, 1960.
________. “Minutes of the Meeting of the Supreme University Council, October 28, 1960.” Archives of the University of El Salvador, 1960.
________. “Minutes of the Meeting of the Supreme University Council, November 4, 1960.” Archives of the University of El Salvador, 1960.
Archives of La Prensa Gráfica
“500 Mil Cols. En Daño a La Universidad.” La Prensa Grafica, September 7 1960, 3.
“En el Hospital.” La Prensa Grafica, September 6 1960, 3.
“Estudiantes Golpeados Reconocidos por el Juez.” La Prensa Grafica, September 6 1960, 3 and 38.
“Manifestación de Duelo.” La Prensa Grafica, September 6 1960, 3.
“Señora de Síndico Relata Atropello.” La Prensa Grafica, September 7 1960, 3.
“Tirotean Residencia del Fiscal General.” La Prensa Grafica, December 22 1960, 3 and 56.
“Directorio Asume [El Poder].” La Prensa Grafica, January 26 1961, 3 and 10.
“Osorio, Falla Cáceres y Fortín M. Salen del País.” La Prensa Grafica, January 27 1961, 3.
“EE.UU. Reconoció a Junta De Gobierno.” La Prensa Grafica, December 4, 1960, 3.
“Junta de Gobierno es Reconocida Por Cuba.” La Prensa Grafica, December 5, 1960, 3.
“Desmilitarización de la Policía está en Estudio.” La Prensa Grafica, December 16, 1960, 2.
“La Junta de Gobierno de El Salvador Decreta Remoción de Alcaldes (Decreto #44 Dado en La Casa Presidencial el 14 de Diciembre de 1960).” La Prensa Grafica, December 16, 1960, 41.
“Policía y Bomberos se Desmilitarizan.” La Prensa Grafica, December 17, 1960, 2.
“Boletín de Prensa del PRAM.” La Prensa Grafica, December 23 1960, 39.
“Fidel Castro Planea más Fusilamientos.” La Prensa Grafica, January 4, 1960.
“Rompen Relaciones EE.UU. con Cuba.” La Prensa Grafica, January 4, 1961, FrontPage and 5.
“Castro Militariza al Campesino Cubano.” La Prensa Grafica, January 9, 1960, 2.
“Directorio Asume Poder en El País- Fue Establecida La Ley Marcial.” La Prensa Grafica, January 26, 1960, FrontPage.
“Elecciones Libres Promete Directorio.” La Prensa Grafica, January 28, 1961, 3 and 25.
“Junta de Gobierno Expone su Ideología.” La Prensa Grafica, November 1, 1960.
“Devuelven Ficha Policial en Casa Presidencial.” La Prensa Grafica, November 6, 1960.
“Es Arrestado Agente Acusado de Torturas.” La Prensa Grafica, November 9, 1960, 3.
“Dos Países Más Reconocen a La Junta Cívico-Militar.” La Prensa Grafica, November 10, 1960.
“Severo Mentís a los Profesionales de la Calumnia y la Mentira: Roque Dalton García Capturado.” ed. Relaciones Públicas de Casa Presidencial: La Prensa Gráfica, October 13, 1960.
“Boletín del Frente de Orientación Cívica.” La Prensa Grafica, October 27 1960, 3.
“De Guatemala.” La Prensa Grafica, October 28 1960.
“Ex-Detenido se Refiere a las Burlas a la Justicia.” La Prensa Grafica, October 28, 1960.
“Canessa Agradece Foto que le Salvó la Vida.” La Prensa Grafica, October 31, 1960, 3.
“Carta del Presidente Lemus al Rector de La Universidad de El Salvador.” La Prensa Gráfica, September 1 1960.
“Ex-Canciller Detenido.” La Prensa Grafica, September 4, 1960, Front Page.
“Rectores De Centroamérica Llegan Al País.” La Prensa Grafica, September 26, 1960.
Interviews
Chávez, Joaquín. “Interview with Abraham Rodríguez.” 2006.
________. “Interview with Domingo Santacruz.” 2006.
________. “Interview with Héctor Dada.” 2007.
________. “Interview with Oscar Fernández.” 2007.
Works Cited
Almeida, Paul D. Waves of Protest: Popular Struggle in El Salvador, 1925-2005. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008.
Arias Gómez, Jorge. “Anastasio Aquino, Recuerdo, Valoración y Presencia.” La Universidad, no. 1-2 (1964).
Cuenca, Abel. El Salvador: Una Democracia Cafetalera. México: Ala Revolucionaria Radical, 1962.
FUAR, Columna Campesina del FUAR. “Trinchera.” November 18, 1961.
FUAR, Tercera Plenaria Nacional del FUAR. “Proyecto Plataforma Programática del FUAR.” San Salvador, 1962.
Harnecker, Marta. Con La Mirada En Alto: Historia de Las Fuerzas Populares de Liberación Farabundo Martí a Través de Entrevistas con sus Dirigentes. San Salvador: UCA Editores, 1993.
Menjívar, Rafael. Formación y Lucha del Proletariado Industrial Salvadoreño. San Salvador: UCA Editores, 1979.
Montgomery, Tommie Sue. Revolution in El Salvador: From Civil Strife to Civil Peace. Boulder: Westview Press, 1995.
Sewell, William H. “Historical Events as Transformations of Structures: Inventing Revolution at the Bastille.” Theory and Society 25, no. 6 (December 1996): 841-881.
Smith, Wayne. “The End of World Revolution in Latin America,” in The Russians Aren’t Coming: New Soviet Policy in Latin America, ed. Wayne Smith. Boulder and London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992.
Valle, Víctor. Siembra De Vientos El Salvador 1960-69. San Salvador: CINAS, 1993.
Wickham-Crowley, Timothy P. Guerrillas and Revolution in Latin America: A Comparative Study of Insurgents and Regimes since 1956. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992.
Descargas
Publicado
Número
Sección
Licencia
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial-CompartirIgual 4.0.
Aquellos autores/as que tengan publicaciones con esta revista, aceptan los términos siguientes:
- Los autores/as conservarán sus derechos de autor y garantizarán a la revista el derecho de primera publicación de su obra, el cuál estará simultáneamente sujeto a la Licencia Creative Commons, Atribución, NoComercial, SinDerivadas.
- Los autores/as podrán adoptar otros acuerdos de licencia no exclusiva de distribución de la versión de la obra publicada (p. ej.: depositarla en un archivo telemático institucional o publicarla en un volumen monográfico) siempre que se indique la publicación inicial en esta revista.
- Se permite y recomienda a los autores/as difundir su obra a través de Internet (p. ej.: en archivos telemáticos institucionales o en su página web) antes y durante el proceso de envío, lo cual puede producir intercambios interesantes y aumentar las citas de la obra publicada. (Véase El efecto del acceso abierto).
