Characterization of Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment in Costa Rica

Authors

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.15517/8xws3193

Keywords:

Bio-gardens, life zones, sanitation, surface area, vegetation

Abstract

In response to the need for decentralized wastewater treatment solutions in rural and peri-urban areas, constructed wetlands emerge as an ecological, low-cost, and adaptable option for tropical conditions. This study analyzes the location, design, and technical characteristics of horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands in Costa Rica. Through field visits conducted between March 2022 and June 2023, 81 systems built since 2004 were characterized. The implementation of constructed wetlands has shown informal technical standardization, driven by local guidelines and material availability, which has generated consistent patterns in their dimensions, depth, substrate type, and vegetation. The findings indicate that 96% of these systems treat greywater and are predominantly located in Puntarenas (53%) and Guanacaste (19%). Most systems feature surface areas of 1-15 m² and an average depth of 0,75 m, with plastic sheeting as the primary waterproofing material (90%). The most common substrate used is cobbles at the inlet and outlet, and crushed rock in the middle section. A total of 44 plant species were identified, with Canna indica and Heliconia sp. being prominent; their distribution showed a dependence on climate, based on chi-squared analysis. An interactive cartographic viewer accompanies the study to facilitate spatial analysis and data updates. The results reveal a limited and empirical development of this technology, lacking consolidated databases or systematic technical monitoring. The study proposes its integration as a decentralized sanitation strategy in communities not connected to formal systems, through public policies that recognize its effectiveness and replicability.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

[1] Acueductos y Alcantarillados, Ministerio de Ambiente y Energía y Ministerio de Salud, Política Nacional de Saneamiento en Aguas Residuales 2016- 2045, 1ra ed. San José, Costa Rica, 2016. [En línea]. Disponible en https://www.aya.go.cr/Noticias/Documents/Politica%20Nacional%20de%20Saneamiento%20en%20Aguas%20Residuales%20 marzo%202017.pdf

[2] Castro, V. “Costa Rica tiene un gran reto para mejorar el saneamiento de aguas residuales”. Delfino.com. https://

delfino.cr/2024/02/costa-rica-tiene-un-gran-reto-para-mejorar-el-saneamiento-de-aguas-residuales (accesado en oct. 17, 2024).

[3] M.F. Cubillo y W. Gómez. “Biojardineras como alternativas para el tratamiento de aguas residuales: experiencia en cinco biojardineras en las comunidades de Barra Honda y La Vigía de Nicoya, Guanacaste”, Revista de Extensión, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 69-87, jun. 2017, doi: 10.15359/udre.7-1.4.

[4] J. Vymazal, “Removal of nutrients in various types of constructed wetlands”, Science of the Total Environment, vol. 380, no. 1, pp. 48-65, oct. 2007, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv. 2006.09.014.

[5] M. T. Alarcón, F. Zurita, J. A. Lara-Borrero y G. Vidal, Humedales de tratamiento: alternativa de saneamiento de aguas residuales aplicable en América Latina, 1ra ed. Bogotá, Colombia: Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, 2018.

[6] Constructed Wetlands Manual. UN-HABITAT, Kathmandu, Nepal, 2008.

[7] G. Dotro, et al., Treatment Wetlands, vol. 7. Londres, Reino Unido: IWA Publishing, 2017, doi: 10.2166/9781780408774.

[8] R. H. Kadlec y S. Wallace, Treatment wetlands, 2da ed. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press, 2008, doi: 10.1201/9781420012514.

[9] H. Hoffmann, C. Platzer, M. Winker y E. von Muench, Subsurface flow constructed wetlands for greywater and domestic wastewater treatment: Technology review of constructed wetlands, 1ra ed. Hesse, Alemania: Deutsche Gesellschaft für, 2011. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/2-930-giz2011-en-technology-review-constructed-wetlands.pdf

[10] J. J. Salas. “Biojardineras: los humedales artificiales “ticos” (I)”. iAgua. https://www.iagua.es/blogs/juan-josesalas/biojardineras-humedales-artificiales-ticos-i (accesado en oct. 17, 2024).

[11] R. E. Aguilar Álvarez, “Uso de humedales para la limpieza de aguas contaminadas en Costa Rica”, en Uso de humedales artificiales para la limpieza de aguas superficiales en América Latina y el Caribe, L. Morales, P. A. Garcia-Chevesich, G. Romero, A. Arenazas, J. Ticona y R. Pizarro, Eds., Arequipa, Perú: Cátedra UNESCO Hidrología de Superficie, 2023, pp. 85-99.

[12] Mobile Topographer. (v. 9.3.2). GeoStru. Consultado: mar.-jun., 2023. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://www.geostru.eu/mobile-topographer/

[13] Microsoft Excel. (Microsoft 365). Microsoft Corporation. Consultado: ago., 2024-ago., 2025. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://www.microsoft.com/es-microsoft-365/excel

[14] Python. (v. 3.x). Python Software Foundation. Consultado: ene.-jul., 2025. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://www.python.org

[15] E. Rosales Escalante, Creando jardines para limpiar nuestra agua: Manual para la construcción de biojardineras. San José, Costa Rica: ACEPESA y Centro de Investigaciones en Vivienda y Construcción (CIVCO), Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica, 2006. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://g.co/kgs/yeFHKKT

[16] E. Rosales-Escalante, “Ecosaneamiento”, Tecnología en marcha, vol. 18, no. 2, p. 15, 2005. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://revistas.tec.ac.cr/index.php/tec_marcha/article/view/204

[17] M. Marín, Manual para la construcción y mantenimiento de biojardineras, 2da ed. San José, Costa Rica: ACEPESA,

2010.

[18] E. Rosales-Escalante, “Mejoras sanitarias en instituciones o servicios públicos de La Casona, Coto Brus”, Tecnología en marcha, vol. 23, no. 5, pp. 41-50, dic. 2011. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://revistas.tec.ac.cr/index.php/tec_marcha/article/view/57

[19] S. Moncada-Corrales, “Evaluación del diseño de una biojardinera de flujo subsuperficial para el tratamiento de aguas grises en Zapote, San José”, Tesis de Licenciatura, Escuela de Química, Carrera de Ingeniería Ambiental, Tecnológico de Costa Rica, Cartago, Costa Rica, 2011.

[20] C. Alfaro, R. Pérez y M. Solano, “Saneamiento de aguas residuales mediante humedales artificiales en el Museo de Cultura Popular de la Universidad Nacional”, Rev. Ambientales, vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 63-71, ene. 2013, doi: 10.15359/rca.45-1.6.

[21] R. Pérez Salazar, C. Alfaro Chinchilla, J. Sasa Marín y J. Agüero Pérez, “Evaluación del funcionamiento de un sistema alternativo de humedales artificiales para el tratamiento de aguas residuales”, Uniciencia, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 332- 340, 2013. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://www.revistas.una.ac.cr/index.php/uniciencia/article/view/4958

[22] O. J. Chavarría Valverde, “Evaluación del desempeño en la remoción de la carga orgánica en aguas grises domésticas de una biojardinera mediante la construcción a nivel del laboratorio”, Tesis de Licenciatura, Escuela de Ingeniería Química, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica, 2018.

[23] D. Arias-Hidalgo, R. Aguilar-Álvarez y D. Reinhold, “Prácticas sostenibles de turismo para el tratamiento de aguas y manejo de residuos sólidos en albergues turísticos de Talamanca”, Tecnología en marcha, vol. 32, no. 6, pp. 78-88, abr. 2019, doi: 10.18845/tm.v32i6.4231.

[24] M. J. Chassoul-Acosta, “Ecotecnias para el tratamiento de residuos: experiencia de la subcuenca del río Jabonal, Costa Rica”, Estudios de la Gestión, no. 10, pp. 97-114, jul. 2021. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://revistas.uasb.edu.ec/index.php/eg/article/view/2853/3322

[25] E. Ortega, Y. Ferrer, J. J. Salas, C. Aragón y Á. Real, Manual para la implantación de sistemas de depuración en pequeñas poblaciones. Madrid, España: Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Medio Rural y Marino (MARM), 2010.

[26] C. B. Agaton y P. M. C. Guila, “Success Factors and Challenges: Implications of Real Options Valuation of Constructed Wetlands as Nature-Based Solutions for Wastewater Treatment”, Resources, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 1-14, ene. 2024, doi: 10.3390/resources13010011.

[27] Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos, Estimación de Población y Vivienda 2022. San José, Costa Rica: INEC, jul. 2023. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://www.inec.cr/estimaciones-poblacion-vivienda-2022

[28] E. Centeno Mora, N. Cruz Zúñiga y P. Vidal Rivera, “Tratamiento de aguas residuales ordinarias en Costa Rica: perfil tecnológico y perspectivas de sostenibilidad”, Ingeniería, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 7-22, 2024, doi: 10.15517/ri.v34i1.55222.

[29] F. Ruiz Fallas y Á. Araya García, Gestión de las Excretas y Aguas Residuales en Costa Rica: Situación Actual y Perspectiva. San José, Costa Rica: Acueductos y Alcantarillados, 2012. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://www.aya.go.cr/centroDocumetacion/catalogoGeneral/Gesti%C3%B3n%20de%20las%20Excretas%20y%20Aguas%20Residuales%20en%20Costa%20Rica%20%20Situaci%C3%B3n%20Actual%20y%20Perspectiva.pdf

[30] Ecoinventos, “Biojardineras que permiten reutilizar las aguas grises o jabonosas para fines domésticos”, Ecoinventos.

https://ecoinventos.com/biojardineras/ (accesado en oct. 17, 2024).

[31] J. Vymazal, Y. Zhao y Ü. Mander, “Recent research challenges in constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment: A

review”, Ecol. Eng., vol. 169, sep. 2021, Art. no. 106318, doi: 10.1016/j.ecoleng.2021.106318.

[32] R. H. Kadlec y S. Wallace, Treatment Wetlands, 2da ed. Boca Ratón, FL, EE. UU.: CRC Press, 2009.

[33] D. Q. Zhang, K. B. S. N. Jinadasa, R. M. Gersberg, Y. Liu, W. J. Ng y S. K. Tan, “Application of constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment in developing countries – A review of recent developments (2000–2013)”, J. Environ. Manage., vol. 141, pp. 116-131, 2014, doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.03.015.

[34] Z. Lin, M. Li, P. Yan, J. Zhang, H. Xie y H. Wu, “Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment and reuse: Two decades of experience from China”, Environ. Res., vol. 279, pt. 2, nov. 2025, Art. no. 121781, doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2025.121781.

[35] C. Webb, “Managing mosquitoes in constructed freshwater wetlands”, en Workbook for Managing Urban Wetlands in Australia, S. Paul, Ed., Sydney, Australia: Sydney Olympic Park Authority, 2013, pp. 137-160.

[36] S. Ahmed, V. Popov y R. C. Trevedi, “Constructed wetland as tertiary treatment for municipal wastewater”, Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Waste Resour. Manag., vol. 161, no. 2, pp. 77-84, 2008, doi: 10.1680/warm.2008.161.2.77.

[37] H. L. Song, X. N. Li, X. W. Lu e Y. Inamori, “Investigation of microcystin removal from eutrophic surface water by aquatic vegetable bed”, Ecol. Eng., vol. 35, no. 11, pp. 1589-1598, nov. 2009, doi: 10.1016/j.ecoleng. 2008.04.005.

[38] L. Wang, J. Peng, B. L. Wang y L. Yang, “Design and operation of an ecosystem for municipal wastewater treatment and utilization”, Water Sci. Technol., vol. 54, no. 11-12, pp. 429-436, 2006, doi: 10.2166/wst.2006.923.

[39] Pavco Wavin, “No Tejidos MARV FT2021”. https://pavcowavingeosinteticos.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Geomembranas_FT2021.pdf (accesado en oct. 17, 2024).

[40] “Covertech”, https://covertech.odoo.com/ (accesado en jun. 14 2025).

[41] P. Knowles, G. Dotro, J. Nivala y J. García, “Clogging in subsurface-flow treatment wetlands: Occurrence and contributing factors”, Ecol. Eng., vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 99-112, feb. 2011, doi: 10.1016/j.ecoleng.2010.08.005.

[42] S. D. Wallace y R. L. Knight, Small-scale constructed wetland treatment systems: feasibility, design criteria, and O&M requirements. Alexandria, VA, EE. UU.: Water Environment Research Foundation, 2006.

[43] G. Langergraber, R. Haberl, J. Laber y A. Pressl, “Evaluation of substrate clogging processes in vertical flow constructed wetlands”, Water Sci. Technol., vol. 48, no. 5, pp. 25-34, 2003, doi: 10.2166/wst.2003.0272.

[44] G. F. Hua et al., “Effects of plant roots on the hydraulic performance during the clogging process in mesocosm vertical flow constructed wetlands”, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int., vol. 21, no. 22, pp. 13017-13026, nov. 2014, doi: 10.1007/

s11356-014-3249-1.

[45] F. Zurita, J. De Anda y M. A. Belmont, “Treatment of domestic wastewater and production of commercial flowers in vertical and horizontal subsurface-flow constructed wetlands”, Ecol. Eng., vol. 35, no. 5, pp. 861-869, may. 2009, doi: 10.1016/j.ecoleng.2008.12.015.

[46] D. Konnerup, T. Koottatep y H. Brix, “Treatment of domestic wastewater in tropical, subsurface flow constructed wetlands planted with Canna and Heliconia”, Ecol. Eng., vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 248-257, feb. 2009, doi: 10.1016/j.ecoleng. 2008.06.015.

Downloads

Published

2025-11-17

Issue

Vol. 35 No. 2 (2025): July - December 2025 (open issue)

Section

Original Articles

License

Copyright (c) 2025 Ronald Esteban Aguilar Álvarez, Sofía Rodríguez Rodríguez, Jorge Rodríguez Vásquez (Autor/a)

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

In order to be considered an author, the researcher must:

  1. Has contributed substantially  in the conception or design of the research, or in the interpretation of the data.
  2. Has taken part in the design of the research or in the critical study of the content.
  3. Has taken part in the approval of the final version of the work.
  4. Be able to answer any question that the published work may raise.
  5. An “author” must meet all of the above considerations (adapted from the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors http://www.icmje.org/recommendations/translations/spanish2015.pdf)

Authors wishing to publish in this journal agree with the following terms:

  1. Authors conserve the copyrights over their work and let the journal be the first publication venue for their manuscripts.
  2. Authors agree with the Creative Commons Attribution License established by the journal which allows them to distribute their work by mentioning the initial journal where the work was published.
  3. Authors can establish separate agreements for non-exclusive distribution of their work (i.e. work repository) by mentioning the journal as the initial publication venue.
  4. Authors may publish their works electronically (e.g. in institutional repositories or in their own website) only after the journal approves and publishes the manuscript.
  5. As of Fascicle 26 No.1 of 2016; copyrights are the property of the authors of the documents. Prior to that date, editorial policies indicated that this right belonged to Engineering: Journal of the University of Costa Rica.

Contributor Roles Taxonomy

  • Conceptualization – Ideas; formulation or evolution of overarching research goals and aims.
  • Data curation – Management activities to annotate (produce metadata), scrub data and maintain research data (including software code, where it is necessary for interpreting the data itself) for initial use and later re-use.
  • Formal analysis – Application of statistical, mathematical, computational, or other formal techniques to analyze or synthesize study data.
  • Funding acquisition ​- Acquisition of the financial support for the project leading to this publication.
  • Investigation – ​Conducting a research and investigation process, specifically performing the experiments, or data/evidence collection.
  • Methodology – Development or design of methodology; creation of models.
  • Project administration – Management and coordination responsibility for the research activity planning and execution.
  • Resources – Provision of study materials, reagents, materials, patients, laboratory samples, animals, instrumentation, computing resources, or other analysis tools.
  • Software – Programming, software development; designing computer programs; implementation of the computer code and supporting algorithms; testing of existing code components.
  • Supervision – Oversight and leadership responsibility for the research activity planning and execution, including mentorship external to the core team.
  • Validation – Verification, whether as a part of the activity or separate, of the overall replication/reproducibility of results/experiments and other research outputs.
  • Visualization – Preparation, creation and/or presentation of the published work, specifically visualization/data presentation.
  • Writing – original draft – ​Preparation, creation and/or presentation of the published work, specifically writing the initial draft (including substantive translation).
  • Writing – review & editing – Preparation, creation and/or presentation of the published work by those from the original research group, specifically critical review, commentary or revision – including pre- or post-publication stages.