Keywords
seasonal climate prediction
climate variability
climate change.
A
How to Cite
Abstract
Central America is a region susceptible to natural disasters and climate change. We reviewed the literature on the main atmospheric and oceanographic forces and climate modulators affecting Central America, for different spatial and time scales. We also reviewed the reported correlation between climate variability, natural hazards and climate change aspects (in the past and future). In addition, we examined the current state of seasonal prediction systems being applied to the region. At inter-annual scales, El Niño/Southern Oscillation is the main climate modulator; however, other indices such as the Tropical North Atlantic, Atlantic Multi-Decadal Oscillation and Pacific Decadal Oscillation, have shown a correlation with precipitation anomalies in the region. Current seasonal forecast systems in the region have shown a constant development, including incorporation of different approaches ranging from statistical to dynamical downscaling, improving prediction of variables such as precipitation. Many studies have revealed the need of including –in addition to the climatic information– socio-economic variables to assess the impact of natural disasters and climate change in the region. These studies highlight the importance of socio-economic and human life losses associated with the impacts caused by natural hazards for organizations and governments. Rev. Biol. Trop. 66(Suppl. 1): S153-S175. Epub 2018 April 01.
References
Alfaro, E. J. (2000). Eventos cálidos y fríos en el Atlántico Tropical Norte. Atmósfera, 13(2), 109-119.
Alfaro, E. J. (2002). Some Characteristics of the Annual Precipitation Cycle in Central America and their Relationships with its Surrounding Tropical Oceans. Tópicos Meteorológicos y Oceanográficos, 9(2), 88-103.
Alfaro, E. J. (2007a). Escenarios climáticos para temporadas con alto y bajo número de huracanes en el Atlántico. Revista de Climatología, 7, 1-13.
Alfaro, E. J. (2007b). Predicción Climática de la Temperatura Superficial del Aire en Centroamérica. Ambientico, 165, 6-10.
Alfaro, E. J. (2007c). Uso del análisis de correlación canónica para la predicción de la precipitación pluvial en Centroamérica. Ingeniería y Competitividad, 9(2), 33-48.
Alfaro, E. J. (2014). Caracterización del “veranillo” en dos cuencas de la vertiente del Pacífico de Costa Rica, América Central (Characterization of the Mid Summer Drought in two Pacific slope river basins of Costa Rica, Central America). Revista de Biologia Tropical, 62(4), 1-15.
Alfaro, E. J., & Cid, L. (1999a). Ajuste de un modelo VARMA para los campos de anomalías de precipitación en Centroamérica y los índices de los océanos Pacífico y Atlántico Tropical. Atmósfera, 13 (12), 205-222.
Alfaro, E. J., & Cid, L. (1999b). Análisis de las Anomalías en el inicio y el término de la estación lluviosa en Centroamérica y su relación con los océanos Pacífico y Atlántico Tropical. Tópicos Meteorológicos y Oceanográficos, 6(1), 1-13.
Alfaro, E. J., & Cortés, J. (2012). Atmospheric forcing of cool subsurface water events in Bahía Culebra, Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica. Revista de Biología Tropical, 60, 173-186.
Alfaro, E. J., & Lizano, O. (2001). Algunas relaciones entre las zonas de surgencia del Pacífico Centroamericano y los Océanos Pacífico y Atlántico Tropical. Revista de Biologia Tropical, 49(2), 185-193.
Alfaro, E. J., & Pérez-Briceño, P. M. (2014). Análisis del impacto de fenómenos meteorológicos en Costa Rica, América Central, originados en los mares circundantes. Revista de Climatología, 14, 1-11.
Alfaro, E. J., & Quesada, A. (2010). Ocurrencia de ciclones tropicales en el Mar Caribe y sus impactos sobre Centroamérica. Revista Intersedes, 11(22), 136-153.
Alfaro, E. J., Cid, L., & Enfield, D. B. (1998). Relaciones entre la precipitación en Centroamérica y los Océanos Pacífico y Atlántico Tropical. Investigaciones Marinas, 26, 59-69.
Alfaro, E. J., Hidalgo, H., & Mora, N. (2016). Prediction of MJ rainfall season using CCA models. Tópicos Meteorológicos y Oceanográficos, 15(2), 5-19.
Alfaro, E. J., Hidalgo, H., Mora, N., Pérez-Briceño, P., & Fallas, B. (2016). Assessment of Central America Regional Climate Outlook Forum maps, 1998-2013. Tópicos Meteorológicos y Oceanográficos, 15(1), 37-52.
Alfaro, E. J., Quesada, A., & Solano-Chaves, F. J. (2010). Análisis del Impacto en Costa Rica de los Ciclones Tropicales ocurridos en el Mar Caribe desde 1968 al 2007. Diálogos Revista Electrónica, 11(2), 22-38.
Alfaro, E. J., Soley, J., & Enfield, D. (2003). Uso de una Tabla de Contingencia para Aplicaciones Climáticas (Use of a Contingency Table for Climatic Applications). Guayaquil, Ecuador: ESPOL and FUNDESPOL.
Alvarado, L., & Alfaro, E. J. (2003). Frecuencia de los ciclones tropicales que afectaron a Costa Rica durante el siglo XX. Tópicos Meteorológico y Oceanográficos, 10(1), 1-11.
Amador, J. A. (1998). A Climatic Feature of the Tropical Americas: The Trade Wind Easterly Jet. Tópicos Meterológicos y Oceanográficos, 5(2), 91-102.
Amador, J. A. (2008). The Intra-Americas Sea Low-level Jet Overview and Future Research. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1146(1), 153-188.
Amador, J. A. (2011). Socio-economic impacts associated with meteorological systems and tropical cyclones in Central America in 2010. (In: State of the Climate 2011). Bulletin of American Meteorological Society, 92(6), S184.
Amador, J. A., & Alfaro, E. J. (2014). Weather and climate socio-economic impacts in Central America for the management and protection of world heritage sites and the Diquis Delta culture in Costa Rica (a case study). Advances in Geosciences, 35, 157-167.
Amador, J. A., Chacón, R. E., & Laporte, S. (2003). Climate and climate variability in the Arenal river basin of Costa Rica. Climate and water: transboundary challenges in the Americas. Kluwer, Dordrecht, 317-349.
Amador, J. A., Alfaro, E. J., Lizano, O. G., & Magaña, V. O. (2006). Atmospheric forcing of the eastern tropical Pacific: A review. Progress in Oceanography, 69(2-4), 101-142.
Amador, J. A., Alfaro, E. J., Rivera, E. R., & Calderón, B. (2010). Climatic features and their relationship with tropical cyclones over the Intra-Americas seas. In Hurricanes and Climate Change (pp. 149-173). Springer Netherlands.
Amador, J. A., Alfaro E. J., Calderón, B., Durán-Quesada, A. M., Hidalgo H. G, & Rivera, I. L. (2012). Regional Climates: Central America and the Caribbean. (In: State of the Climate 2012). Bulletin of American Meteorological Society, 94(8), S154-S155.
Amador, J. A., Durán-Quesada, A. M., Rivera, E. R., Mora, G., Sáenz, F., Calderón, B., & Mora, N. (2016). The easternmost tropical Pacific. Part II: Seasonal and intraseasonal modes of atmospheric variability. Revista de Biología Tropical, 64(1), S23-S57.
Amador, J. A., Rivera, E. R., Durán-Quesada, A. M., Mora, G., Sáenz, F., Calderón, B., & Mora, N. (2016). The easternmost tropical Pacific. Part I: A climate review. Revista de Biología Tropical, 64(1), S1-S22.
Bell, G. D., & Chelliah, M. (2006). Leading Tropical Modes Associated with Interannual and Multidecadal Fluctuations in North Atlantic Hurricane Activity. Journal of Climate, 19(4), 590-612.
Brenes, C. L., Coen, J. E., Chelton, D. B., Enfield, D. B., León, S., & Ballestero, D. (2003). Wind driven upwelling in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica, 24(5), 1127-1133.
Brown, D. P. (2017). Hurricane Otto (AL162016, EP22016): 20–26 November 2016. Natl. Hurricane Center, Tropical Cyclone Rep.
Cid-Serrano, L., Ramírez, S. M., Alfaro, E. J., & Enfield, D. B. (2015). Analysis of the Latin American west coast rainfall predictability using an ENSO index. Atmósfera, 28(3), 191-203.
Chacón, R. E., & Fernandez, W. (1985). Temporal and spatial rainfall variability in the mountainous region of the reventazón river basin, Costa Rica. Journal of Climatology, 5(2), 175-188.
Chen, A. A., & Taylor, M. A. (2002). Investigating the link between early season Caribbean rainfall and the El Niño + 1 year. International Journal of Climatology, 22(1), 87-106.
Cook, K. H., & Vizy, E. K. (2010). Hydrodynamics of the Caribbean Low-Level Jet and its relationship to precipitation. Journal of Climate, 23(6), 1477-1494.
Dai, A., & Wigley, T. M. L. (2000). Global patterns of ENSO-induced precipitation. Geophysical Research Letters, 27(9), 1283-1286.
Delworth, T. L., & Greatbatch, R. J. (2000). Multidecadal thermohaline circulation variability driven by atmospheric surface flux forcing. Journal of Climate, 13(9), 1481-1495.
Delworth, T. L., & Mann, M. E. (2000). Observed and simulated multidecadal variability in the Northern Hemisphere. Climate Dynamics, 16(9), 661-676.
Delworth, T., Manabe, S., & Stouffer, R. J. (1993). Interdecadal Variations of the thermohaline circulation in a coupled Ocean-Atmosphere model. Journal of Climate, 6(11), 1993-2011.
Diaz-Bolaños, R. E. (2004). La tormenta tropical de 1887 y su paso por las fuentes históricas costarricenses. Estudios, 18-19, 39-56.
Donoso, M., & Ramírez, P. (2001). Latin America and the Caribbean: Report on the climate outlook forums for mesoamerica. In International Research Institute for Climate Prediction (Ed.). Coping with the climate: A step forward, Workshop Report: A multi-stakeholder review of Regional Climate Outlook Forums 16–20 October 2000 (pp. 16-20). Pretoria, South Africa: IRI Publication IRI-CW/01/1.
Douglas, M. W. (1995). The Summertime Low-Level Jet over the Gulf of California. Monthly Weather Review, 123(8), 2334-2347.
Douglas, M. W., Valdez-Manzanilla, A., & Garcia Cueto, R. (1998). Diurnal Variation and Horizontal Extent of the Low-Level Jet over the Northern Gulf of California. Monthly Weather Review, 126(7), 2017-2025.
Durán-Quesada, A. M. (2012). Sources of moisture for Central America and transport based on a Lagrangian approach: variability, contributions to precipitation and transport mechanisms (Doctoral dissertation). Vigo: Spain: Universidade de Vigo.
Durán-Quesada, A. M., Gimeno, L., & Amador, J. (2017). Role of moisture transport for Central American precipitation. Earth System Dynamics, 8, 147-161.
Durán-Quesada, A. M., Gimeno, L., Amador, J. A., & Nieto, R. (2010). Moisture sources for Central America: Identification of moisture sources using a Lagrangian analysis technique. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 115(D5), D05103.
Enfield, D. B., & Alfaro, E. J. (1999). The Dependence of Caribbean Rainfall on the Interaction of the Tropical Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Journal of Climate, 12(7), 2093-2103.
Enfield, D. B., Mestas-Nuñez, A. M., & Trimble, P. J. (2001). The Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation and its relation to rainfall and river flows in the continental U.S. Geophysical Research Letters, 28(10), 2077-2080.
Evans, M. N., Cane, M. A., Schrag, D. P., Kaplan, A., Linsley, B. K., Villalba, R., & Wellington, G. M. (2001). Support for tropically-driven Pacific decadal variability based on paleoproxy evidence. Geophysical Research Letters, 28(19), 3689-3692.
Fallas-López, B., & Alfaro, E. J. (2012a). Uso de herramientas estadísticas para la predicción estacional del campo de precipitación en América Central como apoyo a los Foros Climáticos Regionales. 1: Análisis de tablas de contingencia. Revista de Climatología, 12, 61-79.
Fallas-López, B., & Alfaro, E. J. (2012b). Uso de herramientas estadísticas para la predicción estacional del campo de precipitación en América Central como apoyo a los Foros Climáticos Regionales. 2: Análisis de Correlación Canónica. Revista de Climatología, 12, 93-105.
Farfán, L. M., Alfaro, E. J., & Cavazos, T. (2013). Characteristics of tropical cyclones making landfall on the Pacific coast of Mexico: 1970-2010. Atmósfera, 26(2), 163-182.
Feng, L., Wu, D., Lin, X., & Meng, X. (2010). The effect of regional ocean-atmosphere coupling on the long-term variability in the Pacific Ocean. Advances in Atmospheric Sciences, 27(2), 393-402.
Fernández, W., Chacón, R., & Melgarejo, J. W. (1996). On the rainfall distribution with altitude over Costa Rica. Revista Geofísica, 44, 57-72.
Fiedler, P. C., & Lavín, M. F. (2006). Introduction: A review of eastern tropical Pacific oceanography. Progress in Oceanography, 69(2-4), 94-100.
García-Solera, I., & Ramírez, P. (2012). Central America’s Seasonal Climate Outlook Forum. Retrieved from http://www.climate-services.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/CRRH_Case_Study.pdf.
Giannini, A., Cane, M. A., & Kushnir, Y. (2001). Interdecadal changes in the ENSO teleconnection to the Caribbean Region and the North Atlantic Oscillation. Journal of Climate, 14(13), 2867-2879.
Giannini, A., Kushnir, Y., & Cane, M. A. (2000). Interannual variability of Caribbean rainfall, ENSO, and the Atlantic Ocean. Journal of Climate, 13(2), 297-311.
Gimeno, L., Stohl, A., Trigo, R. M., Dominguez, F., Yoshimura, K., Yu, L., … Nieto, R. (2012). Oceanic and terrestrial sources of continental precipitation. Reviews of Geophysics, 50(4), RG4003.
Goldenberg, S. B., Landsea, C. W., Mestas-Nuñez, A. M., & Gray, W. M. (2001). The recent increase in Atlantic hurricane activity: Causes and Implications. Science, 293(5529), 474-479.
Greatbatch, R. J. (2000). The North Atlantic Oscillation. Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment, 14(4-5), 213-242.
Hastenrath, S. (1991). Climate Dynamics of the Tropics. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
Herrera, E., Magaña, V., & Caetano, E. (2015). Air-sea interactions and dynamical processes associated with the midsummer drought. International Journal of Climatology, 35(7), 1569-1578.
Hidalgo, H. G., & Alfaro, E. J. (2012). Some physical and socio-economic aspects of climate change in Central America. Progress in Physical Geography, 36(3), 379-399.
Hidalgo, H., Alfaro, E. J., & Quesada-Montano, B. (2017). Observed (1970-1999) climate variability in Central America using a high-resolution meteorological dataset with implication to climate change studies. Climatic Change, 141, 13-28.
Hidalgo, H. G., Amador, J. A., Alfaro, E. J., & Quesada, B. (2013). Hydrological climate change projections for Central America. Journal of Hydrology, 495, 94-112.
Hidalgo, H. G., Durán-Quesada, A. M., Amador, J. A., & Alfaro, E. J. (2015). The Caribbean Low-Level Jet, the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone and Precipitation Patterns in the Intra-Americas Sea: A Proposed Dynamical Mechanism. Geografiska Annaler: Series A, Physical Geography, 97(1), 41-59.
Higgins, R. W., Yao, Y., & Wang, X. L. (1997). Influence of the North American Monsoon System on the U.S. Summer Precipitation Regime. Journal of Climate, 10(10), 2600-2622.
Higgins, R. W., Douglas, A., Hahmann, A., Berbery, E. H., Gutzler, D., Shuttleworth, J., … Zhang, C. (2003). Progress in Pan American CLIVAR Research: The North American Monsoon System. Atmósfera, 16(1).
Hurrell, J. W. (1996). Influence of variations in extratropical wintertime teleconnections on northern hemisphere temperature. Geophysical Research Letters, 23(6), 665-668.
International Research Institute for Climate and Society (2001). Latin America Regional Report. In Coping with the climate: A step Forward. Workshop Report “A multi-stakeholder review of Regional Climate Outlook Forums” (pp. 136-138). Pretoria, South Africa.
Karnauskas, K. B. B., Seager, R., Giannini, A., & Busalacchi, A. J. J. (2013). A simple mechanism for the climatological midsummer drought along the Pacific coast of Central America. Atmósfera, 26(2), 261-281.
Latif, M., Roeckner, E., Botzet, M., Esch, M., Haak, H., Hagemann, S., … Mitchell, J. (2004). Reconstructing, Monitoring, and Predicting Multidecadal-Scale Changes in the North Atlantic Thermohaline Circulation with Sea Surface Temperature. Journal of Climate, 17(7), 1605-1614.
Magaña, V., Amador, J. A., & Medina, S. (1999). The midsummer drought over Mexico and Central America. Journal of Climate, 12(6), 1577-1588.
Maldonado, T., & Alfaro, E. J. (2010). Propuesta metodológica para la predicción climática estacional de eventos extremos y días con precipitación. Estudio de caso: Sur de América Central. InterSedes, 11(21), 182-214.
Maldonado, T., & Alfaro, E. J. (2011). Predicción estacional para ASO de eventos extremos y días con precipitación sobre las vertientes Pacífico y Caribe de América Central, utilizando análisis de correlación canónica. InterSedes, 12(24), 78-108.
Maldonado, T., Alfaro, E. J., Fallas-López, B., & Alvarado, L. (2013). Seasonal prediction of extreme precipitation events and frequency of rainy days over Costa Rica, Central America, using Canonical Correlation Analysis. Advances in Geosciences, 33, 41-52.
Maldonado, T., Alfaro, E. J., Rutgersson, A., & Amador, J. A. (2016). The early rainy season in Central America: the role of the tropical North Atlantic SSTs. International Journal of Climatology. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.4958
Maldonado, T., Rutgersson, A., Alfaro, E. J., Amador, J. A., & Claremar, B. (2016). Interannual variability of the midsummer drought in Central America and the connection with sea surface temperatures. Advances in Geosciences, 42, 35-50.
Maldonado, T., Rutgersson, A., Amador, J. A., Alfaro, E. J., & Claremar, B. (2016). Variability of the Caribbean low-level jet during boreal winter: large-scale forcings. International Journal of Climatology, 36(4), 1954-1969.
Malmgren, B. A., Winter, A., & Chen, D. (1998). El Niño-Southern Oscillation and North Atlantic Oscillation Control of Climate in Puerto Rico. Journal of Climate, 11(10), 2713-2717.
Mantua, N. J., & Hare, S. R. (2002). The Pacific Decadal Oscillation. Journal of Oceanography, 58(1), 35-44.
Mantua, N. J., Hare, S. R., Zhang, Y., Wallace, J. M., & Francis, R. C. (1997). A Pacific Interdecadal Climate Oscillation with Impacts on Salmon Production. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 78(6), 1069-1079.
Mapes, B. E., Warner, T. T., Xu, M., Negri, A. J., Mapes, B. E., & Xu, M. (2003). Diurnal Patterns of Rainfall in Northwestern South America. Part II: Model Simulations. Monthly Weather Review, 131(5), 799-812.
Mestas-Nuñez, A. M., & Enfield, D. B. (2001). Eastern Equatorial Pacific SST Variability: ENSO and Non-ENSO Components and Their Climatic Associations. Journal of Climate, 14(3), 391-402.
Mock, C. J. (1996). Climatic controls and spatial variations of precipitation in the western United States. Journal of Climate, 9(5), 1111-1125.
Muñoz, A. G., Ruiz-Carrascal, D., Ramírez, P., León, G., Quintana, J., Bonilla, A., … Sánchez, O. (2012). Risk Management at the Latin American Observatory. In N. Banaitiene (Ed.). Risk Management-Current Issues and Challenges (pp. 533-556). Rijeka, Croatia: InTech. doi: 10.5772/50788.
Neri, C., & Magaña, V. (2016). Estimation of Vulnerability and Risk to Meteorological Drought in Mexico. Weather, Climate, and Society, 8(2), 95-110.
Oficina de las Naciones Unidas para la Reducción del Riesgo de Desastres & Centro de Coordinación para la Prevención de los Desastres Naturales en América Central (2014). Informe regional del estado de la vulnerabilidad y riesgos de desastres en Centroamérica. Panamá, Panamá: UNISDR/CEPREDENAC.
Peña, M., & Douglas, M. W. (2002). Characteristics of Wet and Dry Spells over the Pacific Side of Central America during the Rainy Season. Monthly Weather Review, 130(12), 3054-3073.
Pérez-Briceño, P. M., Alfaro, E. J., Hidalgo, H., & Jiménez, F. (2016). Distribución espacial de impactos de eventos hidrometeorológicos en América Central. Revista de Climatología, 16, 63-75.
Poveda, G., & Mesa, O. J. (2000). On the existence of Lloró (the rainiest locality on Earth): Enhanced ocean-land-atmosphere interaction by a low-level jet. Geophysical Ressearch Letters, 27(11), 1675-1678.
Quirós-Badilla, E., & Hidalgo-León, H. G. (2016). Variabilidad y conexiones climáticas de la zona de convergencia intertropical del Pacífico este. Topicos Meteorologicos y Oceanograficos, 15(1), 21-36.
Ramírez, S., Cid, L., & Alfaro, E. J. (2015). Modelos lineales generalizados para la predicción de precipitaciones en el Valle Central de Costa Rica, América Central usando ENOS: una propuesta metodológica. Revista Geofísica, 65, 11-27.
Retana, J. A. (2012). Eventos hidrometeorológicos extremos lluviosos en Costa Rica desde la perspectiva de la adaptación al cambio en el clima. Ambientales, 44, 5-16.
Rivera, E. R., & Amador, J. A. (2008). Predicción Estacional del Clima en Centroamérica mediante la reducción de escala dinámica. Parte I: Evaluación de los Modelos de Circulación General CCM3.6 y ECHAM4.5. Revista de Matemática: Teoría y Aplicaciones, 15(2), 131-173.
Rivera, E. R., & Amador, J. A. (2009). Predicción estacional del clima en Centroamérica mediante la reducción de escala dinámica. Parte II: aplicación del modelo MM5V3. Revista de Matemática: Teoría y Aplicaciones CN – 0000, 16(1), 76-104.
Sánchez‐Murillo, R., Durán‐Quesada, A. M., Birkel, C., Esquivel‐Hernández, G., & Boll, J. (2017). Tropical precipitation anomalies and d‐excess evolution during El Niño 2014‐16. Hydrological Processes, 31(4), 956-967.
Schneider, N., & Cornuelle, B. D. (2005). The Forcing of the Pacific decadal oscillation. Journal of Climate, 18(21), 4355-4373.
Schultz, D. M., Bracken, W. E., & Bosart, L. F. (1998). Planetary- and Synoptic-Scale Signatures Associated with Central American Cold Surges. Monthly Weather Review, 126(1), 5-27.
Schultz, D. M., Bracken, W. E., Bosart, L. F., Hakim, G. J., Bedrick, M. A., Dickinson, M. J., & Tyle, K. R. (1997). The 1993 Superstorm Cold Surge: Frontal Structure, Gap Flow, and Tropical Impact. Monthly Weather Review, 125(1), 5-39.
Solano, F. J., E. J. Alfaro , & A. Quesada. (2011). Impacto de los Ciclones Tropicales del Atlántico en América Central, Temporada de 1968 y 1969. Diálogos Revista Electrónica, 12(1), 81-100.
Soley, F.J. (1994). Suavizamiento de series cronológicas geofísicas con ruido blanco y rojo aditivo. Revista de Geofísica, 41, 33-58.
Srinivasan, J., & Smith, G. L. (1996). Meridional Migration of Tropical Convergence Zones. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 35(8), 1189-1202.
Taylor, M. A., & Alfaro, E. J. (2005). Central America and the Caribbean, climate of. In Encyclopedia of world climatology (pp. 183-189). Springer Netherlands.
Velásquez, R. (2000). Mecanismos físicos de variabilidad climática y eventos extremos en Venezuela (Licenciatura’s thesis). San José, Costa Rica: Universidad de Costa Rica.
Vera, C., Higgins, W., Amador, J. A., Ambrizzi, T., Garreaud, R., Gochis, D., … Zhang, C. (2006). Toward a unified view of the American monsoon systems. Journal of Climate, 19(20), 4977-5000.
Wang, C. (2007). Variability of the Caribbean Low-Level Jet and its relations to climate. Climate Dynamics, 29(4), 411-422.
Wang, C., & Enfield, D. B. (2001). The Tropical Western Hemisphere Warm Pool. Geophysical Research Letters, 28(8), 1635-1638.
Wang, C., & Enfield, D. B. (2003). A Further Study of the Tropical Western Hemisphere Warm Pool. Journal of Climate, 16(10), 1476-1493.
Wang, C., & Fiedler, P. C. (2006). ENSO variability and the eastern tropical Pacific: A review. Progress in Oceanography, 69(2-4), 239-266.
Wang, C., & Lee, S. (2007). Atlantic warm pool, Caribbean low-level jet, and their potential impact on Atlantic hurricanes. Geophysical Research Letters, 34(2), 1-5.
Wang, C., Lee, S.-K., & Enfield, D. B. (2008). Climate Response to Anomalously Large and Small Atlantic Warm Pools during the Summer. Journal of Climate, 21(11), 2437-2450.
Wang, C., Lee, S., & Enfield, D. B. (2007). Impact of the Atlantic Warm Pool on the Summer Climate of the Western Hemisphere. Journal of Climate, 20(20), 5021-5040.
Zárate-Hernández, E. (2013). Climatología de masas invernales de aire frío que alcanzan Centroamérica y el Caribe y su relación con algunos índices Árticos. Tópicos Meteorológicos y Oceanográficos, 12(1), 35 - 55.
Zárate-Hernández, E. (2014). Influencia de las masas invernales de aire frío sobre el Chorro de Bajo Nivel del Caribe y sus ramas. Tópicos Meteorológicos y Oceanográficos, 13(2), 19-40.
Zhang, R., & Delworth, T. L. (2006). Impact of Atlantic multidecadal oscillations on India/Sahel rainfall and Atlantic hurricanes. Geophysical Research Letters, 33(17), L17712.
Zhang, Y., Wallace, J. M., & Battisti, D. S. (1997). ENSO-like interdecadal variability: 1900-93. Journal of Climate, 10(5), 1004-1020.
Comments
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2018 Revista de Biología Tropical