Palabras clave
anxiety
fear
behavior
Modelos animales
ansiedad
miedo
comportamiento
Cómo citar
Resumen
Los modelos animales de miedo y ansiedad se han utilizado para la comprensión de trastornos de ansiedad en humanos, sin embargo no ha sido fácil diferenciar ambos conceptos a nivel fisiológico y conductual. Una forma de modelar estos trastornos es mediante pruebas conductuales de ansiedad (como el laberinto en cruz elevado o la prueba de campo abierto) y de miedo (como el condicionamiento al miedo y la evitación activa). Además, estos modelos permiten estudiar diferentes áreas cerebrales involucradas como la amígdala, el hipocampo y la corteza prefrontal. En general, el miedo y la ansiedad se pueden considerar respuestas adaptativas normales, sin embargo niveles elevados de ambos pueden generar consecuencias perjudiciales para el individuo.
Citas
Akirav, I. & Maroun, M. (2007). The role of the medial prefrontal cortex-amygdala circuit in stress effects on the extinction of fear. Neural Plasticity, 23 (30), 1-11
Archer, J. (1973). Tests for emotionality in rats and mice: a review. Animal Behavior, 21 (2), 205-235.
Arnsten, A. (2009). Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function. Neuroscience, 10 (6), 410-422.
Becerra-García, M., Madalena, C., Estanislau, C., Rodríguez-Rico, L. & Dias, H. (2007). Ansiedad y miedo: su valor adaptativo y maladaptaciones. Revista Lationamericana de Psicología, 39 (1), 75-81.
Bechara, A., Tranel, D., Damasio, H., Adolphs, R., Rockland, C., & Damasio, A. (1995). Double dissociation of conditioning and declarative knowledge relative to the amygdala and hippocampus in humans. Science, 269 (5227), 1115–1118.
Bessa, J., Oliveira, M., Cerqueira, J., Almeida, O. & Sousa, M. (2005). Age-related qualitative shift in emotional behaviour: Paradoxical findings after re-exposure of rats in the elevated-plus maze. Behavioral Brain Research, 162 (1), 135-142.
Blanchard, R., Blanchard, C., Griebel, G. & Nutt, D. (2008). Introduction to the handbook on fear and anxiety. En: Blanchard, R., Blanchard, C., Griebel, G., Nutt,D. (Ed.) Handbook of anxiety and fear (pp. 3-7). Países Bajos: Elsevier.
Boschen, S., Wietzikoski, E., Winn, P., & Cunha, C. (2011). The role of nucleus accumbens and dorsolateral striatal D2 receptors in active avoidance conditioning. Neurobiology of learning and memory, 96 (2), 254-262.
Brenes, JC., Rodríguez, O. & Fornaguera, J. (2006). Factor analysis of Forced Swimming test, Sucrose Preference test and Open Field test on enriched, social and isolated reared rats. Behavioural Brain Research, 169 (1), 57-65
Bruchey, A.; Jones, C. & Monfils, M. (2010). Fear conditioning by-proxy: Social transmission of fear during memory retrieval. Behavioural Brain Research, 214 (1), 80-84.
Burman, M., Hamilton, K. & Gewirtz, J. (2010). Role of corticosterone in trace and delay conditioned fear-potentiated startle in rats. Behavioral Neuroscience, 124 (2), 294-299
Campos, A., Fogaça, M., Aguiar, D. & Guimaraes, F. (2013). Animal models of anxiety disorders and stress. Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria, 35 (2), 101-111.
Canteras, S. & Graeff, G. (2014). Executive and modulatory neural circutis of defensive reactions: implications for panic disorder. Neuroscience Behavioral Reviews, 7634 (14), in press.
Castro, V. & Landeira, J. (2008). Amygdaloid lesions produced similar contextual fear conditioning disruption in the Carioca high -and low-conditioned freezing rats. Brain Research, 1233(8), 137-145.
Carobrez A., & Bertoglio, L. (2005). Ethological and temporal analyses of anxiety-like behavior: the elevated plus maze model 20 years on. Neuroscience and Behavioral Reviews. 29 (8), 1193-1205.
Choi, J., Cain, C. & LeDoux, J. (2010). The role of amygdale nuclei in the expression of auditory signaled two-way active avoidance in rats. Learning and Memory 17 (3), 139-147.
Davis, M., Falls, W., & Gewirtz, J. (2000). Neural systems involved in fear inhibition: extinction and conditioned inhibition. In M. Myslobodsky & I. Weiner (Eds.). Contemporary issues in modeling psychopathology, (pp. 113–142). Estados Unidos: Elsevier
De Kloet, E., Joëls, M. & Holsboer, F. (2002). Stress and the brain: from adaptation to disease. Neuroscience, 6 (6), 463-475.
Duval, F., González, F. & Rabia, H. (2010) Neurobiología del estrés. Revista Chilena de Neuro-Psiquiatría, 48 (4), 307-318.
Dubovicky, M. (2004). Effect of chronic emotional stress on habituation processes in open field in adult rats. New York Academy of Sciences, 1018, 199-206
Engel, K., Bandelow, B., Gruber, O & Wedekind, D. (2009). Neuroimaging in anxiety disorders. Journal of Neural Transmission, 116 (6), 703-716.
Everitt, B., Cardinal, R., Parkinson, J. & Robbins, T. (2006). Appetitive behavior. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 985, 233-250.
Fanselow, M. & Ponnusamy, R. (2008). The use of conditioning tasks to model fear and anxiety. En Blanchard, R.J., Banchard, D. C., Griebel, G & Nutt, D.J. (Eds.), Handbook of Anxiety and Fear, (pp. 29-48). Países Bajos: Elsevier.
Fendt, M. & Fanselow, M. (1999). The neuroanatomical and neurochemical basis of conditioned fear. Neuroscience Biobehavioral Reviews, 23 (5), 743-760.
Fullford & Harbuz. (2005). An introduction to the HPA axis. En: Steckler, T., Kalin, N., Reul, J. (Eds.) Handbook of stress and the brain (pp. 3-23). Países Bajos: Elsevier.
Gale, G., Anagnostaras, S, Godsil, B., Mitchell, S., Nozawa, T., Sage, J., Wiltgen, B & Fanselow, M. (2004). Role of the basolateral amygdala in the storage of fear memories across the adult lifetime of rats. The Journal of Neuroscience, 24 (15), 3810-3815
Ganella, D. & Kim, J. (2014). Developmental rodent models of fear and anxiety: From neurobiology to pharmacology. British Journal of Pharmacology, 1 (20), 56-74.
Gómez, C., Saldívar, A. & Rodríguez, R. (2002). Modelos animales para el estudio de la ansiedad: una aproximación crítica. Salud Mental, 25 (1), 14-24.
Green, M. & McCormick, C. (2013). Effects of stressors in adolescence on learning and memory in rodent models. Hormones and behavior, 64 (2), 364-379.
Grillon, C., Duncko, R., Covigton, M., Kopperman, L. & Kling, M. (2007). Acute stress potentiates anxiety in humans. Biological Psychiatry, 62 (10), 1183-1186.
Gould, T., Dao, D., Kovacsics, C. (2009). The open field test. Mood and Anxiety Related Phenotypes in Mice. Neuromethods, 42 (12), 1-20.
Hagenaars, M. (2014). Updating feeze: aligning animal and human research. Neuroscience and behavioral reviews, 47 (1), 165-176
Hau, J. (2003). Animal models. En Hau, J. & VanHoosier G.L (eds.), Handbook of Laboratory Animal Science, (pp. 8-16). EEUU: CRC Press.
Hogg, S. (1996). A review of the validity and variability of the elevated plus-maze as an animal model of anxiety. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 54 (1), 21-30.
Kim, J.; & Whan, M. (2006). Neural circuits and mechanisms involved in Pavlovian fear conditioning: A critical review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 30 (2), 188-202
Kloet, R., Jones, M, & Holsboer, F. (2005). Stress and the brain: from adaptation to disease. Nature Reviews, 6 (6), 63-75
LaBar, K., LeDoux, J., Spencer, D., & Phelps, E. (1995). Impaired fear conditioning following unilateral temporal lobectomy in humans. Journal of Neuroscience, 15 (10), 6846–6855.
LeDoux, J. (2000). Emotion circuits in the brain. Annual Reviews, 23, 155-184.
Levine, S. (2005). Stress: an historical perspective. En: Steckler, T., Kalin, N., Reul, J. (Ed.) Handbook of stress and the brain, (pp. 3-23). Países Bajos: Elsevier.
Lissek, M. (2005). Classical fear conditioning in the anxiety disorders: a meta-analysis. Behavior Research and therapy, 43 (1), 1391-1424
Litvin, Y., Pentkowski, N., Pobbe, R., Blanchard, D. & Blanchard R. (2008). En Blanchard, R., Banchard, D., Griebel, G & Nutt, D. (Eds.), Handbook of Anxiety and Fear, (pp. 81-101). Países Bajos: Elsevier.
Marek, R., Strobel, C. Bredy, T. & Saj, P. (2013). The amygdale and medial prefrontal cortex: partners in the fear circuit. The Journal of Physiology, 591 (10), 2381-2391
Maren, S. (2001). Neurobiology of Pavlovian Fear Conditioning. Annual Reviews, 24 (1), 897-931
Masís-Calvo, M. Sequeira-Cordero, A. Mora-Gallegos, A. &
Fornaguera-Trías, J. (2013). Behavioral and neurochemical characterization of maternal care effects on juvenile Sprague-Dawley rats. Physiology and Behavior, 118 (1), 212-217
McNaugthon, N. & Zangrossi, H. (2008) Theoretical aproches to the modeling of anxiety in animals. En Blanchard, R., Banchard, D., Griebel, G & Nutt, D. (Eds.), Handbook of Anxiety and Fear, (pp. 11-28). Países Bajos: Elsevier.
Mineka, S. y Ohman, A. (2002). Phobias and Preparedness: The Selective, Automatic, and Encapsulated Nature of Fear. Society of Biological Psychiatry, 52 (10), 927-937
Moscarello, M. & LeDoux, J (2013). Active avoidance learning requires prefrontal suppression of amygdala-mediated defense reactions. Journal of Neuroscience, 33 (9), 3815-3823
Moustafa, A., Gilbertson, M., Orr, S., Herzahllah, M., Servatius, R. & Myers, C. (2013). A model of amygdala-hippocampal-prefrontal interaction in fear conditioning and extinction in animals. Brain and Cognition, 81 (1), 29-43.
Ohman, A. & Mineka, S. (2001). Fears, phobias and preparedness: toward an evolved module of fear and fear learning. Psychological Reviews, 108 (3), 483-522
Ossenkopp, K. & Mazmanian, D. (1985). The principle of aggregation in psychobiological correlational research: an example from the open field test. Animal learning and behavior, 13 (4), 339-344
Pang, K., Jiao, X., Sinha, S., Beck, K., & Servatius, R. (2011). Damage of GABAergic neurons in the medial septum impairs spatial working memory and extinction of active avoidance: effects on proactive interference. Hippocampus, 21(8), 835-846.
Pego, J., Morgado, P., Pinto, L., Cerqueira, J., Almeida, O., &
Sousa, N. (2008). Dissociation of the morphological correlates of stress-induced anxiety and fear. European Journal of Neuroscience, 21 (8), 1503-1516
Pellow, S., Chopin, P., File, S., & Briley, M. (1985). Validation of open closed arm entries in an elevated plus maze as a measure of anxiety in the rat. Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 14 (3), 149-167.
Pleskacheva, M. (1996). Temporal characteristics of grooming in an open field in two strains of rats. International Journal of Comparative Psychology, 9 (3), 105-116
Prut, L. & Belzung, C. (2003). The open field as a paradigm to measure the effects of drugs on anxiety-like behaviors: a review. European Journal of Pharmacology, 463 (3), 3-33
Radulovic, J., & Tronson, N. (2010). Molecular specificity of multiple hippocampal processes governing fear extinction. Reviews in the Neurosciences, 21 (1), 1-18.
Rodgers, R. & Dalvi, A. (1997). Anxiety, Defense and the elevated plus-maze. Neuroscience and Behavioral Reviews, 21 (6), 801-810.
Rodrigues, S., LeDoux, J. & Sapolsky, R. (2009). The influence of stress hormones on fear circuitry. Annals Review of Neuroscience, 32, 289-313.
Rohra, D. & Qazi, Y. (2008). Reliability of rodent models. En Conn, P.M. (Ed.), Sourcebook of Models for Biomedical Research (pp. 213-220). EEUU: Humana Press.
Roth, K. (1979). Stress, behavioral arousal and open field activity-a reexamination of emotionality in the rat. Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews, 3 (4), 247-263.
Roozendaal, B., McEwen, B., & Chattarji, S. (2009). Stress, memory and the amygdala. Nature Reviews, 10 (6), 423-433
Sandi, G. & Pinelo-Nava, M. (2007). Stress and memory: behavioral effects and neurobiological mechanisms. Neural Plasticity, 2007 (78970), 1-20.
Seligman, M. (1971). Phobias and preparedness. Behavior Therapy, 2 (3), 307–320.
Sequeira-Cordero, A., Masís-Calvo, M., Mora-Gallegos, A. &
Fornaguera-Trías, J. (2013). Maternal behavior as an early modulator of neurobehavioral offspring responses by Sprague-Dawley rats. Behavioural Brain Research, 237, 63-70.
Shanks, N., Greek, R. & Greek, J. (2009). Are animal models predictive for humans? Philos., Ethics, and Humanit. Med., 4, 1-20.
Sierra, JC., Ortega, V., & Zubeidat, I. (2003). Ansiedad, angustia y estrés: tres conceptos a diferenciar. Revista Mal-estar y subjetividade, 3 (1), 10-59.
Suárez, S. (1981). An ethological analysis of open field behavior in rats and mice. Learning and motivation, 12 (3), 342-363
Sullivan, G. & LeDoux, J. (2004). Synaptic Self. En: Gorman, J. (Ed). Fear and anxiety. American Psychopathological Association, (pp. 1-22). New York.
Walf, A. & Frye, C. (2007). The use of the elevated plus maze as an assay of anxiety-related behavior in rodents. Nature Protocols, 2, 322-328.
Walsh, R. & Cummins, R. (1976). The open field test: a critical review. Psychological bulletin, 83 (3), 482-504.
Wendler, E. (2014). The roles of the nucleus accumbens core, dorsomedial striatum, and dorsolateral striatum in learning: Performance and extinction of Pavlovian fear-conditioned responses and instrumental avoidance responses. Neurobiology of learning and memory, 109, 27-36.
Zeidner, M. & Matthews, G. (2011). Anxiety. New York: Springer