Supplementary Files
Keywords
GENDER
LABOR MARKET
COSTA RICA
LABOR DISCRIMINATION
BRECHA DE GÉNERO
GÉNERO
MERCADO LABORAL
COSTA RICA
DISCRIMINACIÓN LABORAL
How to Cite
Abstract
Women have lower average labor income than men around the world, despite having more years of education. In developing countries, this situation is often even worse. Women not only face wage gaps compared to men who have the same productivity and the same job, but they also face disadvantages regarding the type and conditions of employment, job stability, unemployment rates, and their caregiving burden. This research analyzes the differences in labor incomes by gender and informality in Costa Rica. To do so, we use the Encuesta Continua de Empleo (ECE) from the first quarter of 2023 to estimate various statistical and econometric methodologies. The analysis is conducted by estimating three econometric methodologies: Mincer's equations, the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition, and Mincer's equation considering the semi-parametric quantile regression estimation.
References
Angrist, J., & Krueger, A. B. (1994). Why Do World War II Veterans Earn More than Nonveterans? Journal of Labor Economics, 12(1), 74–97. https://doi.org/10.1086/298344
Arulampalam, W., Booth, A. L., & Bryan, M. L. (2007). Is There a Glass Ceiling over Europe? Exploring the Gender Pay Gap across the Wage Distribution. ILR Review, 60(2), 163–304. https://doi.org/10.1177/001979390706000201
Bar, M., Kim, S., & Leukhina, O. (2015). Gender Wage Gap Accounting: The Role of Selection Bias. Demography, 52(5), 1729–1750. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-015-0418-x
Becker, G. S. (1971). The Economics of Discrimination (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226041049.001.0001
Blanco, L. C. (2023). Diferenciales salariales de género y sus determinantes para el personal académico titular en la Universidad de Costa Rica. Revista de Ciencias Económicas, 41(2), Article e52311. https://doi.org/10.15517/rce.v41i2.52311
Blau, F. D., & Kahn, L. M. (2017). The Gender Wage Gap: Extent, Trends, and Explanations. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(3), 789–865. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.20160995
Blau, F. D., Kahn, L. M., Boboshko, N., & Comey, M. (2021). The Impact of Selection into the Labor Force on the Gender Wage Gap (Working paper series, No. 28855). National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.3386/w28855
Blinder, A. S. (1973). Wage Discrimination: Reduced Form and Structural Estimates. The Journal of Human Resources, 8(4), 436–455. https://doi.org/10.2307/144855
Chzhen, Y., & Mumford, K. (2011). Gender gaps across the earnings distribution for full-time employees in Britain: Allowing for sample selection. Labour Economics, 18(6), 837–844. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2011.05.004
Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe. (2019). Planes de igualdad de género en América Latina y el Caribe: Mapas de ruta para el desarrollo. (Observatorio de igualdad de género en América Latina y el Caribe; Estudios, N.º 1). Naciones Unidas. https://hdl.handle.net/11362/41014
Couppié, T., Dupray, A., & Moullet, S. (2014). Education-based occupational segregation and the gender wage gap: evidence from France. International Journal of Manpower, 2(1), 3–10. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJM-09-2012-0143
Dah, A., & Fakih, A. (2016). Decomposing Gender age Differentials Using Quantile Regression: Evidence from the Lebanese Banking Sector. International Advances in Economic Research, 22(2), 171–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11294-016-9574-z
de la Rica, S., Dolado, J. J., & Llorens, V. (2008). Ceilings or floors? Gender wage gaps by education in Spain. Journal of Population Economics, 21(3), 751–776. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-006-0128-1
Ehrenberg, R., & Smith, R. (2017). Modern Labor Economics: Theory and Public Policy (13th ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315101798
Fields, G. S. (2009). Segmented Labor Market Models in Developing Countries. In: H. Kincaid and D. Ross (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Philosophy of Economics (pp. 476–510). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195189254.003.0018
Fuchs, M., Rossen, A., Weyh, A., & Wydra‐Somaggio, G. (2021). Where do women earn more than men? Explaining regional differences in the gender pay gap. Journal of Regional Science, 61(5), 1065–1086. https://doi.org/10.1111/jors.12532
Goldin, C. (2014). A Grand Gender Convergence: Its Last Chapter. American Economic Review, 104(4), 1091–1119. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.104.4.1091
Grimshaw, D., & Rubery, J. (2007). Undervaluing women's work. (Working Paper Series No. 53). Equal Opportunities Commission.
Heckman, J. J. (1979). Sample Selection Bias as a Specification Error. Econometrica, 47(1), 153–161. https://doi.org/10.2307/1912352
Hellerstein, J. K., Neumark, D., & Troske, K. R. (2002). Market Forces and Sex Discrimination. The Journal of Human Resources, 37(2), 353–380. https://doi.org/10.2307/3069651
Huffman, M. L., King, J., & Reichelt, M. (2017). Equality for whom? Organizational Policies and the Gender Gap across the German Earnings Distribution. ILR Review, 70(1), 16–41. https://doi.org/10.1177/0019793916673974
International Labour Organization. (1951). C100 - Equal Remuneration Convention, 29 June 1951 (No. 100). ILO Publications. https://web.archive.org/web/20240707035200/https://normlex.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_INSTRUMENT_ID:312245
International Labour Organization. (2018). La brecha salarial en América Latina: estimaciones para cuatro países (Costa Rica, México, Perú y Uruguay). ILO Publications. https://web.archive.org/web/20241107223010/https://www.ilo.org/es/resource/la-brecha-salarial-en-america-latina-estimaciones-para-cuatro-paises
Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos. (2023). Encuesta Continua de Empleo alprimer trimestre 2023 [Data set].
Jiménez Cordero, R., & Morales Aguilar, N. (2012). Discriminación salarial en el mercado de trabajo en los noventas. Revista de Ciencias Económicas, 30(2), 30–51. https://doi.org/10.15517/rce.v30i2.8006
Juhn, C., Murphy, K. M., & Pierce, B. (1993). Wage inequality and the Rise in Returns to Skill. The Journal of Political Economy, 101(3), 410–442. https://doi.org/10.1086/261881
Koenker, R., & Bassett, G. (1978). Regression Quantiles. Econometrica, 46(1), 33–50. https://doi.org/10.2307/1913643
Madalozzo, R. (2010). Occupational segregation and the gender wage gap in Brazil: An empirical analysis. Economia Aplicada, 14(2), 147–168. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-80502010000200002
Mincer, J. A. (1974). Schooling, Experience, and Earnings (1st ed.). National Bureau of Economic Research. https://web.archive.org/web/20220307195144/https://www.nber.org/books-and-chapters/schooling-experience-and-earnings
Oaxaca, R. (1973). Male-Female Wage Differentials in Urban Labor Markets. International Economic Review, 14(3), 693–709. https://doi.org/10.2307/2525981
Olivetti, C., & Petrongolo, B. (2008). Unequal Pay or Unequal Employment? A Cross‐Country Analysis of Gender Gaps. Journal of Labor Economics, 26(4), 621–654. https://doi.org/10.1086/589458
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2021). Government at a Glance 2021, Country Fact Sheet: Costa Rica. OECD Publishing. https://web.archive.org/web/20210709100229/https://www.oecd.org/gov/gov-at-a-glance-2021-costa-rica.pdf
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2023). OECD Economic Surveys: Costa Rica 2023. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/8e8171b0-en
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2023). Gender wage gap (indicator) [Data set]. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/7cee77aa-en
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2019). SIGI 2019 Global Report: Transforming Challenges into Opportunities, Social Institutions and Gender Index. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/bc56d212-en
Regan, T. L., & Oaxaca, R. L. (2009). Work experience as a source of specification error in earnings models: implications for gender wage decompositions. Journal of Population Economics, 22(2), 463–499. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-007-0180-5
Reich, M., Gordon, D. M., & Edwards, R. C. (1973). A Theory of Labor Market Segmentation. The American Economic Review, 63(2), 359–365. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1817097
Rodríguez Zúñiga, M., & Segura Díaz, M. (2015). ¿Existe un techo de cristal en la distribución salarial femenina en Costa Rica? [Memoria de seminario de graduación para optar por el grado de Licenciatura en Economía, Universidad de Costa Rica]. Repositorio Kerwá. http://repositorio.ciem.ucr.ac.cr/jspui/handle/123456789/171
Sakellariou, C. (2004). The use of quantile regressions in estimating gender wage differentials: a case study of the Philippines. Applied Economics, 36(9), 1001–1007. https://doi.org/10.1080/0003684042000233230
Torres, R. & Zaclicever, D. (2022) Brecha salarial de género en Costa Rica: Una desigualdad persistente. (Serie Comercio Internacional, N.º 169). Naciones Unidas. https://hdl.handle.net/11362/48049
United Nations. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development (A/RES/70/1). United Nations General Assembly. https://documents.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/n15/291/89/pdf/n1529189.pdf
Weichselbaumer, D., & Winter‐Ebmer, R. (2005). A Meta‐Analysis of the International Gender Wage Gap. Journal of Economic Surveys, 19(3), 479–511. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0950-0804.2005.00256.x
Xiu, L., & Gunderson, M. (2014). Glass ceiling or sticky floor? Quantile regression decomposition of the gender pay gap in China. International Journal of Manpower, 35(3), 306–326. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJM-01-2012-0017
##plugins.facebook.comentarios##
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 3.0 Unported License.
Copyright (c) 2025 Camilo Saldarriaga, Roberto Mauricio Sánchez-Torres, Josefina Muñoz-Ávila