Abstract
This paper highlights the importance of the subject in consciousness studies. It begins with the “hard problem” of the mind-body nexus according to David Chalmers, Thomas Nagel and Colin McGinn. Materialism and dualism are portrayed in contrast with Buddhist ontology, followed by a brief description of Francisco Varela’s neurophenomenology. Finally, Buddhist meditation is presented as a valid introspective method that vindicates the role of the subject in consciousness studies.References
Askenasy, J. y Lehmann, J. (2013). Consciousness, brain, neuroplasticity. Frontiers in Psychology, 4 (41), pp. 1-4.
Astin, J.A. (1997). Stress reduction through mindfulness meditation. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 66 (2), pp. 97-106.
Austin, J. (1998). Zen and the brain. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Barinaga, M. (2003). Studying the well-trained mind. Science 302 (5642), pp. 44-46.
Bedia, M.G. y Castillo, L.F. (2010). Hacia una teoría de la mente corporizada: la influencia de los mecanismos sensomotores en el desarrollo de la cognición. Ánfora, 17 (28), pp. 101-124.
Bem, S. (2001). The explanatory autonomy of psychology: Why a mind is not a brain. Theory and Psychology 11 (6), pp. 785-795.
Bitbol, M. y Petitmengin, C. (2013). A defense of introspection from within. Neurophenomenology, 8 (3), pp. 269-279.
Brefczynski-Lewis, J.A.; Lutz, A; Schaefer, H.S.; Levinson, D.B. y Davidson, R.J. (2007). Neural correlates of attentional expertise in long-term meditation practitioners. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 104 (27), pp. 11483-11488.
Brown, D., y Engler, J. (1980). The states of mindfulness meditation: A validation study. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 12 (2), pp. 143-192.
Cahn, B.R. (2006). Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies. Psychological Bulletin 132 (2), pp. 180-211.
Chalmers, D. (1995). Facing up to the problem of consciousness. Journal of Consciousness Studies 2 (3), pp. 200-219.
Churchland, P.S. (1980). A perspective on mind-brain research. The Journal of Philosophy 77 (4), pp. 185-207.
Churchland, P.S. (1996). The hornswoggle problem. Journal of Consciousness Studies 3 (5-6), pp. 402-408.
Compton, W., y Becker, G. (1983). Self-actualization and experience with Zen meditation: Is a learning period necessary for meditation? Journal of Clinical Psychology 39 (6), pp. 925-929.
Corrêa Mograbi, G.J. (2011). Meditation and the brain: Attention, control and emotion. Mens Sana Monographs 9 (1), pp. 276–283.
Cowger, E.L. y Torrance, E.P. (1982). Further examination of the quality of changes in creative functioning resulting from meditation (Zazen) training. Creative Child and Adult Quarterly 7 (4), pp. 211-217.
Dass, R. (2004). Paths to God: Living the Bhagavad-Gita. Nueva York: Harmony Books.
Davidson, R.J. y Lutz, A. (2008). Buddha’s brain: neuroplasticity and meditation. IEEE Signal Processing 25 (1), pp. 171-174.
Davis, J.H. y Vago, D.R. (2013). Can enlightenment be traced to specific neural correlates, cognition, or behavior? No, and (a qualified) Yes. Frontiers in Psychology 4 (870), pp. 1-4.
Delmonte, M. (1984). Electrocortical activity and related phenomena associated with meditation practice: A literature review. International Journal of Neuroscience 24 (3-4), pp. 217-231.
Delmonte, M. (1985). Meditation and anxiety reduction: A literature review. Clinical Psychology Review 5 (2), pp. 91-102.
Desbordes, G. y Negi, L.T. (2013). A new era for mind studies: Training investigators in both scientific and contemplative methods of inquiry. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 7 (741), pp. 1-4.
Dragonetti, C. (1991). Tres aspectos del budismo: Hinayana, Mahayana, Ekayana. Revista de Estudios Budistas (1), pp. 13-43. Recuperado de: http://www.elb-studycenter.org/images/dragonetti.pdf
Dragonetti, C. (Trad.) (1992). El sutra de los kalamas. Revista de estudios budistas 1 (2), pp. 153-165).
Dragonetti, C. y Tola, F. (trads.) (2006). Udana: la palabra del Buda. Madrid: Trotta.
Dubs, G. (1987). Psycho-spiritual development in Zen Buddhism: A study of resistance in meditation. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 19(1), pp. 19-86.
Earle, J.B.B. (1981). Cerebral laterality and meditation: A review of the literature. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 13 (2), pp. 155-173.
Eccles, J.C. y Popper, K.R. (1985). The Self and its Brain. 2da ed. Berlin, Nueva York y Londres: Springer-Verlag.
Eccles, J.C. (1994). How the Self Controls its Brain. Berlin, Heidelberg y Nueva York: 1994.
Ekman, P.; Davidson, R.J.; Ricard, M. y Wallace, B.A. (2005). Buddhist and psychological perspectives on emotions and well-being. Current Directions in Psychological Science 14 (2), pp. 59-63.
Emavardhana, T. y Toiri, C. (1997). Changes in self-concept, ego defense mechanisms, and religiosity following seven-day Vipassana meditation retreats. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 36 (2), pp. 194-206.
Engler, J. (1984). Therapeutic aims in psychotherapy and meditation: Developmental stages in the representation of self. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 16 (1), pp. 25-61.
Fenwick, P. (1987). Meditation and the EEG. En M.A. West (Ed.), The psychology of meditation, pp. 104-117. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Ferrarelli, F.; Smith, R.; Dentico, D.; Riedner, B.A.; Zennig, C.; Benca, R.M.; Lutz, A.; Davidson, R.J. y Tononi, G. (2013). Experienced mindfulness meditators exhibit higher parietal-occipital EEG gamma activity during NREM sleep. PloS ONE 8 (8): e73417.
Fox, K.C.R.; Zakarauskas, P.; Dixon, M.; Ellamil, M.; Thompson, E.; Christoff, K. (2012). Meditation Experience Predicts Introspective Accuracy. PloS ONE 7 (9): e45370.
Fromm, G.H. (1992). Neurophysiological speculations on Zen enlightenment. Journal of Mind and Behavior 13 (2), pp. 163-169.
Hallowell, R. (2009). Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela’s contribution to media ecology: Autopoiesis, the Santiago School of Cognition, and enactive cognitive science. Proceedings of the Media Ecology Assocation, 10, pp. 143-158. Recuperado de: http://media-ecology.org/publications/MEA_proceedings/v10/13_varela_maturanda.pdf
Hirai, T. (1975). Zen meditation therapy. Tokyo: Japan Publications.
Hirai, T. (1978). Zen and the mind: Scientific approach to Zen practice. Tokyo: Japan Publications, 1978.
Houshmand, Z., Livingston, R.B. y Wallace, B.A. (1999). Consciousness at the crossroads: conversations with the Dalai Lama on brain science and Buddhism. Nueva York: Snow Lion Publications.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1982). An outpatient program in behavioral medicine for chronic pain patients based on the practice of mindfulness meditation: Theoretical considerations and preliminary results. General Hospital Psychiatry 4 (1), pp. 33-47.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1988). Compliance with an outpatient stress reduction program: Rates and predictors of program completion. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 11(4), pp. 333-352.
Kabat-Zinn, J., Lipworth, L., y Burney, R. (1984). The clinical use of mindfulness meditation for the self-regulation of chronic pain. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 8 (2), pp. 163-190.
Kabat-Zinn, J., Massion, A.O., Kristeller, J., Peterson, G.L., Fletcher, K.E., Pbert, L., Linderking, W.R., y Santorelli, S.F. (1992). Effectiveness of a meditation-based stress reduction program in the treatment of anxiety disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 149 (7), pp. 936-943.
Kasamatsu, A., y Hirai, T. (1966/1990). An electroencephalographic study on the Zen meditation. En: C. Tart (Ed.), Altered states of consciousness, pp. 581-595. 3a edición. Nueva York: HarperCollins.
Kaul, P.; Passafiume, J.; Sargent, C.R.; O’Hara, B.F. (2010). Meditation acutely improves psychomotor vigilance, and may decrease sleep need. Behavioral and Brain Functions 6 (47), pp. 1-9.
Kelly, B.D. (2008). Buddhist psychology, psychotherapy and the brain: A critical introduction. Transcultural Psychiatry 45 (1), pp. 5-30.
Khalsa, S.S.; Rudrauf, D.; Damasio, A.R.; Davidson, R.J.; Lutz, A. y Tranel, D. (2008). Interoceptive awareness in experienced meditators. Psychophysiology 45 (4), pp. 671–677.
Kurth, F.; MacKenzie-Graham, A.; Toga, A.W.; Luders, E. (2015). Shifting brain asymmetry: the link between meditation and structural lateralization. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 10 (1), pp. 55-61.
Lazara, S.W.; Kerr, C.E.; Wasserman, R.H.; Gray, J.R.; Greve, D.N.; Treadway, M.T.; McGarveye, M.; Quinn, B.T.; Dusek, J.A.; Benson, H.; Raucha, S.L.; Moore, C.I. y Fischl, B. (2005). Meditation experience is associated with increased cortical thickness. Neuroreport 16 (17), pp. 1893-1897.
Leeuwen, S.; Singer, W. y Melloni, L. (2012). Meditation increases the depth of information processing and improves the allocation of attention in space. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 6 (133), pp. 1-16.
Lindahl, J.R.; Kaplan, C.T.; Winget, E.M. y Britton, W.B. (2014). A phenomenology of meditation-induced light experiences: traditional Buddhist and neurobiological perspectives. Frontiers in Psychology 4 (973), pp. 1-4.
Luders, E.; Phillips, O.R.; Clark, K.; Kurth, F. y Toga, A.W. (2011). Enhanced Brain Connectivity in Long-term Meditation Practitioners. Neuroimage 57 (4), pp. 1308-1316.
Luders, E.; Kurth, F.; Mayer, E.A.; Toga, A.W.; Narr, K.L. y Gaser, C. (2012). The unique brain anatomy of meditation practitioners: alterations in cortical gyrification. Frontiers in Neuroscience 6 (34), pp. 1-9.
Luders, E.; Phillips, O.R.; Clark, K.; Kurth, F.; Toga, A.W. y Narr, K.K. (2012). Bridging the hemispheres in meditation: thicker callosal regions and enhanced fractional anisotropy (FA) in long-term practitioners. Neuroimage 6 (1), pp. 181-187.
Lutz, A. (2004). Introduction – the explanatory gap: To close or to bridge? Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences 3, pp. 325-330.
Lutz, A.; Greishcar, L.L.; Rawlings, N.B.; Ricard, M.; Davidson, R.J. (2004). Long-term meditators self-induce high-amplitude gamma synchrony during mental practice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101(46), pp. 16369-16373.
Lutz, A.; Brefczynski-Lewis, J.; Johnstone, T. y Davidson, R.J. (2008). Regulation of the neural circuitry of emotion by compassion meditation: Effects of meditative expertise. PLoS ONE 3 (3), pp. 31897.
MacCoon, D.G.; Imel, Z.E.; Rosenkranz, M.A.; Sheftel, J.G.; Weng, H.Y.; Sullivan, J.C.; Bonus, K.A.; Stoney, C.M.; Salomons, T.V.; Davidson, R.J. y Lutz, A. (2012). The Validation of an Active Control Intervention for Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR). Behaviour Research and Therapy 50(1), pp. 3-12.
MacPhillamy, D.J. (1986). Some personality effects of long-term Zen monasticism and religious understanding. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 25(3): 304-319.
Malec, J. y Sipprelle, C.N. (1977). Physiological and subjective effects of Zen meditation and demand characteristics. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 45 (2), pp. 339-340.
Mascaro, J.S.; Rilling, J.K.; Negi, L.T. y Raison, C.L. (2013). Compassion meditation enhances empathic accuracy and related neural activity. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 8 (1), pp. 48-55.
McGinn, C. (1989). Can we solve the mind-body problem? Mind 98 (391), pp. 349-366.
Morrison, A.B; Goolsaran, M.; Rogers, S.L. y Jha, A.P. (2014). Training a wandering attention: Short-form mindfulness training in student cohorts. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 7(897), pp. 1-12.
Nagel, T. (1974). What is it like to be a bat? The Philosophical Review 83(4), pp. 435-450.
Nagendra, R.P.; Maruthai, N. y Kutty, B.M. (2012). Meditation and Its Regulatory Role on Sleep. Frontiers in Neurology 3(54), pp. 1-4.
Pace, T.W.W.; Negi, L.T.; Adame, D.D.; Cole, S.P.; Sivilli, T.I.; Brown, T.D.; Issa, M.J. y Raison, C.L. (2009). Effect of Compassion Meditation on Neuroendocrine, Innate Immune and Behavioral Responses to Psychosocial Stress. Psychoneuroendocrinology 34 (1), pp. 87–98.
Perlman, D.M.; Salomons, T.V.; Davidson, R.J.; Lutz, A. (2011). Differential effects on pain intensity and unpleasantness of two meditation practices Emotion 10(1), pp. 65-71.
Petitmengin, C. (2006). Describing one’s subjective experience in the second person: An interview method for the science of consciousness. Phenomenology and Cognitive Science 5, pp. 229-269.
Revel, J-F. y Ricard, M. (1998). El monje y el filósofo. Barcelona: Urano.
Roemer, L. y Orsillo, S.M. (2003). Mindfulness: A promising intervention strategy in need of further study. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 10(2), pp. 172-178.
Rudrauf, D.; Lutz, A.; Cosmelli, D.; Lachaux, J.P. y Le Van Quyen, M. (2003). From autopoiesis to neurophenomenology: Francisco Varela’s exploration of the biophysics of being. Biological Research 36(1), pp. 27-65.
Schuman, M. (1982). The psychophysiological model of meditation and altered states of consciousness: A critical review. En J.M. Davidson y J.M. Davidson (Eds.), The psychobiology of consciousness. Nueva York: Plenum.
Shapiro, D.H., Jr. (1992). A mode of control and self-control profile for long term meditators. Psychologia 35 (1), pp. 1-11.
Shapiro, D.H., Jr. y Zifferblatt, S.M. (1976). Zen meditation and behavioral self-control: Similarities, differences and clinical applications. American Psychologist 31 (7): 519-532.
Shapiro, D.H., Jr. y Giber, D. (1978). Meditation and psychotherapeutic effects: Self-regulation strategy and altered states of consciousness. Archives of General Psychiatry 35, pp. 294-302.
Shapiro, D.H., Jr. y Walsh, R.N. (Eds.) (1984). Meditation: Classic and contemporary perspectives. Nueva York: Aldine.
Slagter, H.A.; Davidson, R.J. y Lutz, A. (2011). Mental training as a tool in the neuroscientific study of brain and cognitive plasticity. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 5(17), pp. 1-12.
Sudsuang, R., Chentanez, V., y Veluvan, K. (1991). Effect of Buddhist meditation on serum cortisol and total protein levels, blood pressure, pulse rate, lung volume and reaction time. Physiology and Behavior 50 (3), pp. 543-548.
Tart, C.T. (Ed.) (1990). Altered states of consciousness. (3a ed.) Nueva York: HarperCollins.
Thomas, J. Jamieson, G. y Cohen, M. (2014). Low and then high frequency oscillations of distinct right cortical networks are progressively enhanced by medium and long term Satyananda Yoga meditation practice. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 8 (197), pp. 1-4.
Thompson, E. y Varela, F. (2001). Radical embodiment: Neural dynamics and consciousness. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 5(10), pp. 418-425.
Tola, F. y Dragonetti, C. (2003). La concepción budista del universo, causalidad e infinitud. Polis: Revista de la Universidad Bolivariana 2(6):s.p. Recuperado de: Http://www.revistapolis.cl/6/Budismo,%20Tola%20y%20Dragonetti.doc
Varela, F. (1996). A methodological remedy for the hard problem. Journal of Consciousness Studies 3(4), pp. 330-349.
Wallace, B.A. (2006/2007, diciembre-enero). Materialism of the gaps. Mandala 8-10.
Wallace, B.A. (2007). Contemplative science: where Buddhism and neuroscience converge. Nueva York: Columbia University Press.