Como Citar
Resumo
Este ensayo destaca la importancia del sujeto en los estudios de la conciencia. Inicia con el “problema duro” del nexo psicofísico según David Chalmers, Thomas Nagel y Colin McGinn. Luego se exponen el materialismo y el dualismo en contraste con la ontología budista, seguido de una breve descripción de la neurofenomenología de Francisco Varela. Finalmente, se presenta la meditación budista como método introspectivo válido que reivindica el papel del sujeto en los estudios sobre la conciencia.
Referências
Askenasy, J. y Lehmann, J. (2013). Consciousness, brain, neuroplasticity. Frontiers in Psychology, 4 (41), pp. 1-4.
Astin, J.A. (1997). Stress reduction through mindfulness meditation. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 66 (2), pp. 97-106.
Austin, J. (1998). Zen and the brain. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Barinaga, M. (2003). Studying the well-trained mind. Science 302 (5642), pp. 44-46.
Bedia, M.G. y Castillo, L.F. (2010). Hacia una teoría de la mente corporizada: la influencia de los mecanismos sensomotores en el desarrollo de la cognición. Ánfora, 17 (28), pp. 101-124.
Bem, S. (2001). The explanatory autonomy of psychology: Why a mind is not a brain. Theory and Psychology 11 (6), pp. 785-795.
Bitbol, M. y Petitmengin, C. (2013). A defense of introspection from within. Neurophenomenology, 8 (3), pp. 269-279.
Brefczynski-Lewis, J.A.; Lutz, A; Schaefer, H.S.; Levinson, D.B. y Davidson, R.J. (2007). Neural correlates of attentional expertise in long-term meditation practitioners. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 104 (27), pp. 11483-11488.
Brown, D., y Engler, J. (1980). The states of mindfulness meditation: A validation study. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 12 (2), pp. 143-192.
Cahn, B.R. (2006). Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies. Psychological Bulletin 132 (2), pp. 180-211.
Chalmers, D. (1995). Facing up to the problem of consciousness. Journal of Consciousness Studies 2 (3), pp. 200-219.
Churchland, P.S. (1980). A perspective on mind-brain research. The Journal of Philosophy 77 (4), pp. 185-207.
Churchland, P.S. (1996). The hornswoggle problem. Journal of Consciousness Studies 3 (5-6), pp. 402-408.
Compton, W., y Becker, G. (1983). Self-actualization and experience with Zen meditation: Is a learning period necessary for meditation? Journal of Clinical Psychology 39 (6), pp. 925-929.
Corrêa Mograbi, G.J. (2011). Meditation and the brain: Attention, control and emotion. Mens Sana Monographs 9 (1), pp. 276–283.
Cowger, E.L. y Torrance, E.P. (1982). Further examination of the quality of changes in creative functioning resulting from meditation (Zazen) training. Creative Child and Adult Quarterly 7 (4), pp. 211-217.
Dass, R. (2004). Paths to God: Living the Bhagavad-Gita. Nueva York: Harmony Books.
Davidson, R.J. y Lutz, A. (2008). Buddha’s brain: neuroplasticity and meditation. IEEE Signal Processing 25 (1), pp. 171-174.
Davis, J.H. y Vago, D.R. (2013). Can enlightenment be traced to specific neural correlates, cognition, or behavior? No, and (a qualified) Yes. Frontiers in Psychology 4 (870), pp. 1-4.
Delmonte, M. (1984). Electrocortical activity and related phenomena associated with meditation practice: A literature review. International Journal of Neuroscience 24 (3-4), pp. 217-231.
Delmonte, M. (1985). Meditation and anxiety reduction: A literature review. Clinical Psychology Review 5 (2), pp. 91-102.
Desbordes, G. y Negi, L.T. (2013). A new era for mind studies: Training investigators in both scientific and contemplative methods of inquiry. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 7 (741), pp. 1-4.
Dragonetti, C. (1991). Tres aspectos del budismo: Hinayana, Mahayana, Ekayana. Revista de Estudios Budistas (1), pp. 13-43. Recuperado de: http://www.elb-studycenter.org/images/dragonetti.pdf
Dragonetti, C. (Trad.) (1992). El sutra de los kalamas. Revista de estudios budistas 1 (2), pp. 153-165).
Dragonetti, C. y Tola, F. (trads.) (2006). Udana: la palabra del Buda. Madrid: Trotta.
Dubs, G. (1987). Psycho-spiritual development in Zen Buddhism: A study of resistance in meditation. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 19(1), pp. 19-86.
Earle, J.B.B. (1981). Cerebral laterality and meditation: A review of the literature. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 13 (2), pp. 155-173.
Eccles, J.C. y Popper, K.R. (1985). The Self and its Brain. 2da ed. Berlin, Nueva York y Londres: Springer-Verlag.
Eccles, J.C. (1994). How the Self Controls its Brain. Berlin, Heidelberg y Nueva York: 1994.
Ekman, P.; Davidson, R.J.; Ricard, M. y Wallace, B.A. (2005). Buddhist and psychological perspectives on emotions and well-being. Current Directions in Psychological Science 14 (2), pp. 59-63.
Emavardhana, T. y Toiri, C. (1997). Changes in self-concept, ego defense mechanisms, and religiosity following seven-day Vipassana meditation retreats. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 36 (2), pp. 194-206.
Engler, J. (1984). Therapeutic aims in psychotherapy and meditation: Developmental stages in the representation of self. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 16 (1), pp. 25-61.
Fenwick, P. (1987). Meditation and the EEG. En M.A. West (Ed.), The psychology of meditation, pp. 104-117. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Ferrarelli, F.; Smith, R.; Dentico, D.; Riedner, B.A.; Zennig, C.; Benca, R.M.; Lutz, A.; Davidson, R.J. y Tononi, G. (2013). Experienced mindfulness meditators exhibit higher parietal-occipital EEG gamma activity during NREM sleep. PloS ONE 8 (8): e73417.
Fox, K.C.R.; Zakarauskas, P.; Dixon, M.; Ellamil, M.; Thompson, E.; Christoff, K. (2012). Meditation Experience Predicts Introspective Accuracy. PloS ONE 7 (9): e45370.
Fromm, G.H. (1992). Neurophysiological speculations on Zen enlightenment. Journal of Mind and Behavior 13 (2), pp. 163-169.
Hallowell, R. (2009). Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela’s contribution to media ecology: Autopoiesis, the Santiago School of Cognition, and enactive cognitive science. Proceedings of the Media Ecology Assocation, 10, pp. 143-158. Recuperado de: http://media-ecology.org/publications/MEA_proceedings/v10/13_varela_maturanda.pdf
Hirai, T. (1975). Zen meditation therapy. Tokyo: Japan Publications.
Hirai, T. (1978). Zen and the mind: Scientific approach to Zen practice. Tokyo: Japan Publications, 1978.
Houshmand, Z., Livingston, R.B. y Wallace, B.A. (1999). Consciousness at the crossroads: conversations with the Dalai Lama on brain science and Buddhism. Nueva York: Snow Lion Publications.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1982). An outpatient program in behavioral medicine for chronic pain patients based on the practice of mindfulness meditation: Theoretical considerations and preliminary results. General Hospital Psychiatry 4 (1), pp. 33-47.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1988). Compliance with an outpatient stress reduction program: Rates and predictors of program completion. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 11(4), pp. 333-352.
Kabat-Zinn, J., Lipworth, L., y Burney, R. (1984). The clinical use of mindfulness meditation for the self-regulation of chronic pain. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 8 (2), pp. 163-190.
Kabat-Zinn, J., Massion, A.O., Kristeller, J., Peterson, G.L., Fletcher, K.E., Pbert, L., Linderking, W.R., y Santorelli, S.F. (1992). Effectiveness of a meditation-based stress reduction program in the treatment of anxiety disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 149 (7), pp. 936-943.
Kasamatsu, A., y Hirai, T. (1966/1990). An electroencephalographic study on the Zen meditation. En: C. Tart (Ed.), Altered states of consciousness, pp. 581-595. 3a edición. Nueva York: HarperCollins.
Kaul, P.; Passafiume, J.; Sargent, C.R.; O’Hara, B.F. (2010). Meditation acutely improves psychomotor vigilance, and may decrease sleep need. Behavioral and Brain Functions 6 (47), pp. 1-9.
Kelly, B.D. (2008). Buddhist psychology, psychotherapy and the brain: A critical introduction. Transcultural Psychiatry 45 (1), pp. 5-30.
Khalsa, S.S.; Rudrauf, D.; Damasio, A.R.; Davidson, R.J.; Lutz, A. y Tranel, D. (2008). Interoceptive awareness in experienced meditators. Psychophysiology 45 (4), pp. 671–677.
Kurth, F.; MacKenzie-Graham, A.; Toga, A.W.; Luders, E. (2015). Shifting brain asymmetry: the link between meditation and structural lateralization. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 10 (1), pp. 55-61.
Lazara, S.W.; Kerr, C.E.; Wasserman, R.H.; Gray, J.R.; Greve, D.N.; Treadway, M.T.; McGarveye, M.; Quinn, B.T.; Dusek, J.A.; Benson, H.; Raucha, S.L.; Moore, C.I. y Fischl, B. (2005). Meditation experience is associated with increased cortical thickness. Neuroreport 16 (17), pp. 1893-1897.
Leeuwen, S.; Singer, W. y Melloni, L. (2012). Meditation increases the depth of information processing and improves the allocation of attention in space. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 6 (133), pp. 1-16.
Lindahl, J.R.; Kaplan, C.T.; Winget, E.M. y Britton, W.B. (2014). A phenomenology of meditation-induced light experiences: traditional Buddhist and neurobiological perspectives. Frontiers in Psychology 4 (973), pp. 1-4.
Luders, E.; Phillips, O.R.; Clark, K.; Kurth, F. y Toga, A.W. (2011). Enhanced Brain Connectivity in Long-term Meditation Practitioners. Neuroimage 57 (4), pp. 1308-1316.
Luders, E.; Kurth, F.; Mayer, E.A.; Toga, A.W.; Narr, K.L. y Gaser, C. (2012). The unique brain anatomy of meditation practitioners: alterations in cortical gyrification. Frontiers in Neuroscience 6 (34), pp. 1-9.
Luders, E.; Phillips, O.R.; Clark, K.; Kurth, F.; Toga, A.W. y Narr, K.K. (2012). Bridging the hemispheres in meditation: thicker callosal regions and enhanced fractional anisotropy (FA) in long-term practitioners. Neuroimage 6 (1), pp. 181-187.
Lutz, A. (2004). Introduction – the explanatory gap: To close or to bridge? Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences 3, pp. 325-330.
Lutz, A.; Greishcar, L.L.; Rawlings, N.B.; Ricard, M.; Davidson, R.J. (2004). Long-term meditators self-induce high-amplitude gamma synchrony during mental practice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101(46), pp. 16369-16373.
Lutz, A.; Brefczynski-Lewis, J.; Johnstone, T. y Davidson, R.J. (2008). Regulation of the neural circuitry of emotion by compassion meditation: Effects of meditative expertise. PLoS ONE 3 (3), pp. 31897.
MacCoon, D.G.; Imel, Z.E.; Rosenkranz, M.A.; Sheftel, J.G.; Weng, H.Y.; Sullivan, J.C.; Bonus, K.A.; Stoney, C.M.; Salomons, T.V.; Davidson, R.J. y Lutz, A. (2012). The Validation of an Active Control Intervention for Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR). Behaviour Research and Therapy 50(1), pp. 3-12.
MacPhillamy, D.J. (1986). Some personality effects of long-term Zen monasticism and religious understanding. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 25(3): 304-319.
Malec, J. y Sipprelle, C.N. (1977). Physiological and subjective effects of Zen meditation and demand characteristics. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 45 (2), pp. 339-340.
Mascaro, J.S.; Rilling, J.K.; Negi, L.T. y Raison, C.L. (2013). Compassion meditation enhances empathic accuracy and related neural activity. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 8 (1), pp. 48-55.
McGinn, C. (1989). Can we solve the mind-body problem? Mind 98 (391), pp. 349-366.
Morrison, A.B; Goolsaran, M.; Rogers, S.L. y Jha, A.P. (2014). Training a wandering attention: Short-form mindfulness training in student cohorts. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 7(897), pp. 1-12.
Nagel, T. (1974). What is it like to be a bat? The Philosophical Review 83(4), pp. 435-450.
Nagendra, R.P.; Maruthai, N. y Kutty, B.M. (2012). Meditation and Its Regulatory Role on Sleep. Frontiers in Neurology 3(54), pp. 1-4.
Pace, T.W.W.; Negi, L.T.; Adame, D.D.; Cole, S.P.; Sivilli, T.I.; Brown, T.D.; Issa, M.J. y Raison, C.L. (2009). Effect of Compassion Meditation on Neuroendocrine, Innate Immune and Behavioral Responses to Psychosocial Stress. Psychoneuroendocrinology 34 (1), pp. 87–98.
Perlman, D.M.; Salomons, T.V.; Davidson, R.J.; Lutz, A. (2011). Differential effects on pain intensity and unpleasantness of two meditation practices Emotion 10(1), pp. 65-71.
Petitmengin, C. (2006). Describing one’s subjective experience in the second person: An interview method for the science of consciousness. Phenomenology and Cognitive Science 5, pp. 229-269.
Revel, J-F. y Ricard, M. (1998). El monje y el filósofo. Barcelona: Urano.
Roemer, L. y Orsillo, S.M. (2003). Mindfulness: A promising intervention strategy in need of further study. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 10(2), pp. 172-178.
Rudrauf, D.; Lutz, A.; Cosmelli, D.; Lachaux, J.P. y Le Van Quyen, M. (2003). From autopoiesis to neurophenomenology: Francisco Varela’s exploration of the biophysics of being. Biological Research 36(1), pp. 27-65.
Schuman, M. (1982). The psychophysiological model of meditation and altered states of consciousness: A critical review. En J.M. Davidson y J.M. Davidson (Eds.), The psychobiology of consciousness. Nueva York: Plenum.
Shapiro, D.H., Jr. (1992). A mode of control and self-control profile for long term meditators. Psychologia 35 (1), pp. 1-11.
Shapiro, D.H., Jr. y Zifferblatt, S.M. (1976). Zen meditation and behavioral self-control: Similarities, differences and clinical applications. American Psychologist 31 (7): 519-532.
Shapiro, D.H., Jr. y Giber, D. (1978). Meditation and psychotherapeutic effects: Self-regulation strategy and altered states of consciousness. Archives of General Psychiatry 35, pp. 294-302.
Shapiro, D.H., Jr. y Walsh, R.N. (Eds.) (1984). Meditation: Classic and contemporary perspectives. Nueva York: Aldine.
Slagter, H.A.; Davidson, R.J. y Lutz, A. (2011). Mental training as a tool in the neuroscientific study of brain and cognitive plasticity. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 5(17), pp. 1-12.
Sudsuang, R., Chentanez, V., y Veluvan, K. (1991). Effect of Buddhist meditation on serum cortisol and total protein levels, blood pressure, pulse rate, lung volume and reaction time. Physiology and Behavior 50 (3), pp. 543-548.
Tart, C.T. (Ed.) (1990). Altered states of consciousness. (3a ed.) Nueva York: HarperCollins.
Thomas, J. Jamieson, G. y Cohen, M. (2014). Low and then high frequency oscillations of distinct right cortical networks are progressively enhanced by medium and long term Satyananda Yoga meditation practice. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 8 (197), pp. 1-4.
Thompson, E. y Varela, F. (2001). Radical embodiment: Neural dynamics and consciousness. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 5(10), pp. 418-425.
Tola, F. y Dragonetti, C. (2003). La concepción budista del universo, causalidad e infinitud. Polis: Revista de la Universidad Bolivariana 2(6):s.p. Recuperado de: Http://www.revistapolis.cl/6/Budismo,%20Tola%20y%20Dragonetti.doc
Varela, F. (1996). A methodological remedy for the hard problem. Journal of Consciousness Studies 3(4), pp. 330-349.
Wallace, B.A. (2006/2007, diciembre-enero). Materialism of the gaps. Mandala 8-10.
Wallace, B.A. (2007). Contemplative science: where Buddhism and neuroscience converge. Nueva York: Columbia University Press.